The Mind/Brain: Crash Course History of Science #30
Summary
TLDRThis script delves into the evolution of brain and mind sciences from the 19th century, highlighting key figures like Philippe Pinel, Ivan Pavlov, and Sigmund Freud. It discusses the shift from moral to material explanations for mental disorders, the establishment of psychology labs by Wilhelm Wundt, and Freud's psychoanalysis, which revolutionized the understanding of the unconscious mind. The script also touches on the impact of these theories on society, including in advertising and the treatment of shell shock during WWI.
Takeaways
- đ§ The human brain's nature has been a complex subject since the 19th century, with the rise of brain sciences and early psychiatry.
- đ„ The asylums of the 19th century marked a shift from viewing madness as divine punishment to considering it a medical condition.
- đšââïž Philippe Pinel is often credited with creating the modern asylum, advocating for moral treatment over physical restraint.
- đŹ Early neurology and neuroscience developed from studying the brains of criminals and understanding the brain's role in motor functions.
- 𧏠Santiago Ramón y Cajal's work on staining brain tissue led to the acceptance of the 'neuron doctrine', showing the brain is made of individual cells.
- đ Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology lab, establishing psychology as a separate discipline, while structuralism and functionalism emerged as psychological theories.
- đ Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis became influential, focusing on early experiences, relationships, and dreams to understand mental disorders.
- đ Freud introduced the id, ego, and superego as parts of the mind, suggesting our consciousness is like an iceberg with most of it hidden.
- đ Freud's work was controversial but widespread, influencing not only psychiatry but also mainstream culture and advertising.
- đŹ World War I saw the rise of 'shell shock', now known as PTSD, further integrating psychiatry and talk therapy into society's fabric.
- đ Freud's theories, along with those of Jung and others, contributed to the understanding of the collective unconscious and the mind's deep-seated influences.
Q & A
What significant development occurred in the field of brain sciences during the nineteenth century?
-The brain sciences emerged in the nineteenth century with experiments and therapies tied to biological theories of the body, and they came into their own in the early twentieth century.
How were mental disorders historically perceived before the scientific study of the brain?
-Mental disorders were often thought to be a divine punishment, an act of possession by spirits, or the result of an imbalance of the humors.
What was the role of Doctor Philippe Pinel in the history of mental health care?
-Doctor Philippe Pinel is often credited with creating the modern asylum by ordering patients to be unchained, though credit should also go to Jean-Baptiste Pussin. Pinel advocated for moral treatment of patients rather than physical restraint.
How did the Industrial Revolution contribute to the study of the human brain?
-The rise of the therapeutic asylum or mental hospital aimed at helping and studying the mentally ill occurred around the time of the Industrial Revolution, marking the beginning of a scientific study of the human brain.
What was the 'neuron doctrine' and who is credited with its discovery?
-The 'neuron doctrine' is the idea that the brain is made up of individual cells, similar to the rest of the body. This was discovered by Spanish neuroscientist Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal after developing a method of staining brain tissue.
Who founded the first psychology lab and when was it established?
-German doctor Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology lab at the University of Leipzig in 1879, establishing psychology as a separate discipline from other sciences.
What is the significance of Sigmund Freud's work in the field of psychology?
-Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a form of therapy based on talking about early childhood experiences, relationships, and dreams. His theories on the human mind, including the id, ego, and superego, have had a significant influence on popular culture and the understanding of mental health.
What was the term used to describe the mental health issues experienced by soldiers during and after World War I?
-The term 'shell shock' was used to describe the sensory and motor disorders and loss of memories experienced by soldiers without obvious physical causes, which was later rethought of as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
How did the theories of mind and behavior influence the advertising industry?
-Theories of mind and behavior, including those of Freud and his nephew Edward Bernays, were adopted by advertisers to sell consumers mass-produced goods, using psychological insights to influence consumer behavior.
What is the connection between Freud's work and the concept of 'libido'?
-Freud introduced the concept of 'libido' as a form of psychic energy that floats around the brain and needs an outlet. This concept was central to his theories on the origins of funny feelings and the functioning of the human mind.
What was the role of Carl Jung in the development of Freudian theory?
-Carl Jung, a Swiss colleague of Freud, invented the word association test and developed the theory of the collective unconscious, which is a deep part of the mind derived from ancestral memory and myth, not individual experience.
Outlines
đ§ The Emergence of Brain Sciences
This paragraph delves into the historical development of the brain sciences during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It discusses the shift from moral explanations of mental disorders to a focus on the brain's physical aspects. The introduction of therapeutic asylums and the work of figures like Philippe Pinel and Jean-Baptiste Pussin are highlighted, emphasizing the transition from viewing madness as divine punishment to a medical condition. The paragraph also touches on the early days of neurology, the influence of Francis Galton, and the contributions of various scientists like John Hughlings Jackson, Gustav Fritsch, Eduard Hitzig, Ivan Pavlov, and Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal. It concludes with the establishment of psychology labs by Wilhelm Wundt and the development of different psychological theories by Edward Bradford Titchener, William James, and G. Stanley Hall.
đ Professionalization of Psychology and Freud's Impact
The second paragraph outlines the professionalization of psychology and the immense influence of Sigmund Freud. It begins with the establishment of the American Journal of Psychology and the American Psychological Association by G. Stanley Hall. The narrative then shifts to Freud's early career and his exposure to JeanâMartin Charcot's work, which laid the groundwork for Freud's theories. The paragraph details Freud's development of psychoanalysis, his theories on hysteria, and the publication of 'Studies on Hysteria' with Josef Breuer. It also discusses Freud's model of the mind, including the id, ego, and superego, and how these concepts have permeated popular culture. Additionally, it mentions the broader impact of Freud's work on society, including its influence on advertising and industry.
đ Freud's Legacy and the Mind Sciences in Society
The final paragraph examines the lasting legacy of Freud and the integration of mind sciences into society and industry. It questions the scientific validity of Freud's theories but acknowledges their widespread acceptance and impact. The paragraph also discusses the role of psychiatrists and psychoanalysis during World War I, particularly in treating soldiers with shell shock, now recognized as post-traumatic stress disorder. It mentions the contributions of Carl Jung and Eugen Bleuler to Freudian theory and the application of psychological theories in advertising by Edward Bernays. The paragraph concludes with a teaser for the next episode, which will feature Marie Curie, and provides information about the production of Crash Course History of Science.
Mindmap
Keywords
đĄBrain Sciences
đĄMadness
đĄMoral Treatment
đĄNeuroscientists
đĄEugenics
đĄNeurology
đĄPsychology Labs
đĄBehaviorism
đĄNeuronal Doctrine
đĄPsychoanalysis
đĄId, Ego, and Superego
đĄPost-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Highlights
Nineteenth-century scientists made significant discoveries about life and matter, but the nature of the human brain remained elusive.
The brain sciences emerged in the 19th century, focusing on biological theories of the body and mental health.
Madness was historically attributed to divine punishment, spirit possession, or humoral imbalances.
The mentally ill were moved to city hospitals during the rise of capitalism, managed by 'mad doctors'.
Dr. Philippe Pinel is credited with creating the modern asylum, advocating for moral treatment over physical restraint.
Early neurology grew from examining the brains of criminals, shifting from moral to material explanations for mental disorders.
Francis Galton sought quantifiable explanations for human behavior, leading to controversial eugenics theories.
John Hughlings Jackson's studies on epilepsy contributed to the understanding of brain region functions.
Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig's experiments showed specific brain areas control motor functions.
Ivan Pavlov's conditioned reflexes experiments laid the groundwork for behaviorism in psychology.
Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal's neuron doctrine revealed the cellular structure of the brain.
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology lab, establishing psychology as a separate discipline.
Edward Bradford Titchener developed structuralism, focusing on the parts of consciousness.
William James's functionalism theory emphasized the purpose of mental processes.
G. Stanley Hall professionalized psychology, founding key journals and associations.
Psychological theories gained prominence through applications outside of labs, notably Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis.
Freud's psychoanalysis introduced the concepts of the id, ego, and superego in understanding the mind.
Carl Jung contributed the word association test and the collective unconscious theory.
Freudian ideas influenced mainstream psychiatry and were adopted in advertising and industry.
Transcripts
Scientists in the nineteenth century discovered a lot about life and matter. But exactly what
kind of stuff is the human brain? That one wasâand remainsâtricky.
The brain sciencesâwith experiments and therapies tied to biological theories of the
bodyâemerged in the nineteenth century and came into their own in the early twentieth.
Iâm Hank Green and itâs time to look at some⊠upsetting stuff.
[INTRO MUSIC PLAYS]
People have always had theories of the mind and psychological disorder, or âmadness.â
Madness was often thought to be a divine punishment, an act of possession by spirits, or the result
of an imbalance of the humors.
Doctors and priests cared for people dealing with mental disorders. And as capitalism took
off in Europe, the mentally ill were moved from villages, where they were looked after
by families, to hospitals in citiesâpicture Bedlamârun by a new class of professional
âmad doctors.â
But this wasnât psychology or psychiatry as we know it today. In fact, there really
wasnât a scientific study of the human brain or the astonishing mental activity it enables.
This only got going around the time of the Industrial Revolution, with the rise of the
therapeutic asylum, or mental hospital aimed at helpingâand studyingâthe mentally ill.
Doctor Philippe Pinel of the BicĂȘtre hospital in Paris often gets credit for creating the
modern asylum in the late 1700s by ordering the patients to be unchained.
Credit should actually go to the hospital superintendent, Jean-Baptiste Pussinâbut
Pinel did advocate for moral treatment of patients rather than physical restraint. And
his generation of asylum doctors marked the beginning of a shift in thought from madness
to a medical condition of the mind.
But asylums and early psychiatry were only one part of the story. Nerve doctors treated
anxious private patients. And early neurology grew from doctors examining the brains of
criminals.
Over the 1800s, proto-neuroscientists shifted from offering moral explanations for madness
to material explanations tied to brains.
This interest in gray matter came in part from scientists such as Francis Galton who
looked for explanations about human behavior in physical bodies, and who sought to make
the life sciences more quantifiable and useful.
Unfortunately, Galtonâs version of âusefulâ was eugenics, or âimprovingâ the human
species through selective breeding. And scientists in the 1800s tended to blur the lines between
mental illness, crime, low intelligence, and a difficult childhood. So moral explanations
for mental illness snuck back into medicine via âbad brainsâ instead of religion.
Several researchers looked for connections between the physical brain and the mind. English
neurologist John Hughlings Jackson, for example, studied epilepsy and influentially argued
that different bodily functions are tied to different regions of the brain.
And German doctors Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig electrically stimulated parts of the
exposed brains of dogs, making their paws twitch. This showed experimentally that specific
parts of the brain coordinate motor functions.
And then we've got a name you've heard!
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov focused on conditioned reflexes: he taught dogs to associate
the sound of a metronome with being fed, causing them to salivate when presented with the sound
alone.
Pavlovâs stimulusâresponse work became foundational to the school of psychology called
behaviorism. With this approach, psychologists focused on environmental stimuli that affect
how someone behaves rather than what theyâre thinking and feeling.
Meanwhile, Spanish neuroscientist Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal developed a method of staining
brain tissue and discovered that it is made up ofâwait for itâindividual cells! Just
like the rest of the body.
After much painstaking lab work, he convinced the rest of the scientific community of this
idea, called the âneuron doctrineâ after the name of the brain cell.
Around this time, other researchers set up scientific laboratories to study the workings
of the human mind. BTW, weâre mostly focusing on the mind today, but weâll talk more about
the brain after World War II.
German doctor Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology lab, at the University of Leipzig,
in 1879, establishing psychology as a discipline separate from other sciences.
Wundtâs student, British psychologist Edward Bradford Titchener, developed a structuralist
psychological theory based on Wundtâs ideas starting in 1892. Structuralism is a philosophy
that tries to understand things by seeing how their parts fit together, regardless of
what they do. Titchener tried to define the âunit elementsâ of consciousness, hoping
to work out a periodic table for the mind.
Meanwhileâheavily influenced by Charles DarwinâAmerican philosopher William James
developed functionalism theory, writing the Principles of Psychology in 1890. Functionalism
is a philosophy that tries to understand things by working out the purpose for them.
Finally, American psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who studied under both Wundt and James,
set up the experimental psychology lab at Johns Hopkins and went on to professionalize
the whole field. He started the American Journal of Psychology in 1887 and founded the American
Psychological Association in 1892.
Thus, by the early 1900s, both the scientists studying brains and nerves, and those studying
consciousness and human behavior had set up professional labs to explore shared research
questions.
But the sciences of the brain and mind became more well known due to the application of
psychological theories outside of the lab. Yâall know who Iâm talking about, right?
Austrian physician-turned-talk therapist-turned-controversial philosopher Sigmund Freud became so famous
that historians sometimes call the twentieth century âthe Freudian century.â
To introduce him, letâs head back to 1862, when Europeâs most famous brain doctor,
JeanâMartin Charcot, worked at Parisâs SalpĂȘtriĂšre hospital, then the largest in
the world.
Charcot saw patients but was also a big-time brain collector. And he realized that maybe
there were other, new ideas worth trying. His blend of brain research-plus-therapy,
the clinico-anatomical method, was the basis for Freudâs work.
Charcot focused on trying to understand the âlawsâ governing hysteriaâwhich has
a long, problematic history and isnât a disease today.
But back in the nineteenth century, it was a way of describing various problems, including
loss of motor control, paralysis, unexplained fears, fainting, emotional outbursts, and
a host of other ailments. It was a diagnostic trash can. Plus, a way to describe
women with independent ideas!
Charcot tried out a lot of methods: he was one of the first users of the camera in medicine,
moving toward mechanical objectivity, or trusting instruments over human senses.
A lot of his photos of hysteric patients were lurid and super weird by todayâs standards.
But the point of the history of science isnât to prove how awesome and ethical we are today,
but to understand how people in the past made sense of their worlds.
Charcot also explored mesmerism, or hypnosis. He showed that hypnosis can cause physical
symptoms, which he took to prove that hysteria was a neurological, not a psychological illness.
That is, he thought people with mental illnesses were more likely to be affected by hypnosis
because they had bad physical brains.
In 1885, the young Freud attended Charcotâs lectures on hysteria and became obsessed with
mental illness.
Now, itâs important to understand the halfway position that Freud occupied in medicine.
He couldnât take an M.D. in Germany because he was too⊠Jewish. Instead, he became a
ânerve doctor,â treating neurasthenia, or bad or exhausted nervesâwhich was the
rich-person term for hysteria.
But he was open to new ideas. Freud learned a lot from Charcot. But then he found out
that Josef Breuer, a senior nerve doctor in Vienna, was using hypnosis to encourage patients
to talk rather than move.
Freud started working with talk therapy and realized that many hysterical patients were
smart and otherwise ânormal.â And those suffering from hysterical âparalysisâ
were paralyzed in ways that didnât make anatomical sense. He decided that hysterical
paralysis was not an anatomical problem.
In 1893, Breuer and Freud published Studies on Hysteria, theorizing that mental disorders
are not the result of bad biology but bad memories, such as sexual abuse. They suggested
that the best therapy was helping them recover those memories, which were often suppressed.
Breuer and Freud fell out, but from their work together, Freud developed a new form
of therapy, psychoanalysis, that caught on worldwide.
Help us out, ThoughtBubble:
Psychoanalysis was based on talking about early childhood experiences, relationships
with parents, early sexual encounters, and dreams. The couch became a therapeutic tool.
And dreams became important for therapists after Freudâs influential 1900 book, Interpretation
of Dreams.
Through his work listening to patients and trying to decode their anxieties, Freud also
opened up the study of sexualityâor, to coin another big question: where do funny
feelings come from? For Freud the answer was a form of psychic energy called libido that
floated around the brain and had to go somewhere.
Eventually, Freudâs work led him to develop a three-part framework for how the human mind
functions and what it even is:
At the bottom, there is a fairly animalistic layer called the id or unconscious drives,
deep-seated fears and desires.
Above that sits the ego, or the waking, conscious mental interface with reality. Hey, it me!
And finally, metaphorically on top of the ego sits the superego, the mindâs internalized
censor and the voice of society, religion, and moral norms.
For Freud, our minds are the outcome of a conflict between these basic desires, rational
desires, and social desires. This âiceberg theoryâ of consciousnessâthat we only
understand a small part of our own mindsâhas had an enormous influence on popular culture.
Thanks ThoughtBubble. Freud emphasized that this was not an anatomical model, but a medical
one, intended to help therapists access their patientsâ unconsciousness, and a sociocultural
one that accounted for⊠all of history and religion.
To Freud, civilization represses sexual and aggressive drives, so itâs a necessary evil.
But⊠was this sort of theorizing even still science?
Regardless, psychoanalysis blew up. And Freud treated it as a foregone success: in 1914,
he publishedâmaybe a little prematurelyâOn the History of the Psychoanalytic Movement.
Something else happened in 1914: the Great War, or World War I, broke out. Over the next
four years, thousands of soldiers returned from the front complaining of sensory and
motor disorders and loss of memories, but with no obvious physical causes.
This became âshell shock,â later rethought of as post-traumatic stress disorder. Talk
therapists played a role in treating soldiers, and psychiatrists found a steady source of
patients.
Freud also continued to collaborate with other psychologists. His Swiss colleague Carl Jung
invented the word association test and the theory of the collective unconscious, or a
deep part of the mind supposedly derived from ancestral memory and myth, not individual
experience.
And Freudian ideas entered mainstream psychiatry through Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler,
who coined the term âschizophrenia.â
The mind sciences found perhaps an even more fertile home in industry. Advertisers including
Freudâs nephew, Edward Bernays, adopted theories of mind and behavior in order to
sell consumers increasingly mass-produced goods. And J. B. Watsonâthe founder of behaviorismâbecame
an advertising executive.
In a way, Freud helped sell Fords. And other industries looked to theories of mind in order
to make their organizations run more smoothly.
Next timeâletâs get radioactive with a legit family of geniuses: itâs time to meet
Marie Curie.
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