Communication Models

Summary

This script explores three primary models of communication: the transmission model, which views communication as a linear process with potential interference; the transactional model, emphasizing interactive meaning-making and feedback; and the constitutive model, which posits that communication actively creates our social reality. The summary highlights the evolution from a one-way message delivery to a dynamic, reciprocal interaction that shapes our understanding of communication.

Takeaways

• 📚 The script discusses three main models of communication: the transmission model, the transactional model, and the constitutive model.
• 📘 The transmission model, introduced by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, views communication as a linear process with a sender, message, channel, receiver, and potential noise interference.
• 🏹 The transmission model is likened to an archer, where the message is sent without certainty of hitting the target, emphasizing the lack of feedback in this model.
• 🔍 This model is criticized for not accounting for nonverbal communication and the complexities of human interaction.
• 🤝 The transactional model, developed by Watzlawick and others in the late 1960s, sees communication as an interactive process where meaning is created through interaction between senders and receivers.
• 💬 The transactional model includes nonverbal communication and feedback, emphasizing that communication is an ongoing, two-way process.
• 🎭 The 'dance' metaphor is used to describe the transactional model, highlighting the dynamic and simultaneous nature of communication.
• 🌐 The constitutive model, proposed by Robert Craig in 1999, posits that communication is not just about conveying information but is the driving force that creates our social world.
• 🏗️ According to the constitutive model, communication is the primary social process that shapes our society, relationships, and lives.
• 🔑 The script suggests that understanding these models helps in interpreting communication research and readings.
• 🔄 Each model offers a different perspective on communication, with the transactional and constitutive models addressing the shortcomings of the transmission model.

Q & A

What are the three main models of communication discussed in the script?

The three main models of communication discussed are the transmission model, the transactional model, and the constitutive model.

Who developed the transmission model of communication and in what year?

The transmission model was developed by Shannon & Weaver in 1948.

What is the technological angle in the transmission model of communication?

The technological angle in the transmission model is that it envisions a sender who encodes a message and transmits it through a channel, similar to the phone system.

What is the role of 'noise' in the transmission model of communication?

In the transmission model, 'noise' can interfere with the message at any point along the way, potentially causing the message to be garbled or not make sense when received.

How does the transmission model view the occurrence of communication?

According to the transmission model, communication has successfully occurred when a message has been sent and received, regardless of whether the receiver understood the message.

What is a major weakness of the transmission model in terms of face-to-face communication?

A major weakness of the transmission model is the lack of feedback and nonverbal communication, which does not capture the complexities of face-to-face interactions.

Who are the key contributors to the transactional model of communication and when were their contributions made?

Paul Watzlawick and his colleagues in 1967, and Dean Barnlund in 1970, contributed to the development of the transactional model of communication.

How does the transactional model differ from the transmission model in terms of meaning creation?

The transactional model believes that meaning is created through interaction between people, not contained in the words themselves.

What is the significance of the phrase 'You cannot not communicate' in the transactional model?

The phrase signifies that individuals are always sending messages, whether intentionally or unintentionally, including through nonverbal communication and feedback.

What is the constitutive model's view on the role of communication in society?

The constitutive model sees communication as the primary social process that creates and constitutes society, relationships, and our lives.

Who proposed the constitutive theory of communication and what did they emphasize?

Robert Craig proposed the constitutive theory in 1999, emphasizing that communication is not just a tool but the central activity that creates social reality.

How does the constitutive model relate to the idea of 'organizing' as opposed to 'organization'?

The constitutive model aligns with the idea of 'organizing' as it views communication as an ongoing activity that creates and maintains social structures, rather than a static term like 'organization'.

Outlines

00:00

📡 Transmission Model of Communication

The first paragraph introduces the transmission model of communication, which was conceptualized by Shannon and Weaver in 1948. This model likens communication to a technological process where a sender encodes a message and transmits it through a channel to a receiver who decodes it. The model is linear and one-way, similar to a pipeline or an archer shooting an arrow. It emphasizes that communication is successful when the message is sent and received, regardless of whether it is understood or not. However, this model lacks feedback and nonverbal cues, which are significant in face-to-face communication. It is particularly useful for understanding communication through technological channels but falls short in explaining the complexities of human interaction.

05:01

💬 Transactional Model of Communication

The second paragraph delves into the transactional model of communication, which was developed by Paul Watzlawick and others in the late 1960s and early 1970s to address the shortcomings of the transmission model. This model views communication as an interactive process where meaning is created through the interaction between people, rather than being contained within the words themselves. It incorporates nonverbal communication and feedback, asserting that individuals are always communicating, whether intentionally or not. The model uses the metaphor of a dance to illustrate the dynamic, two-way nature of communication, where participants continuously adjust and interpret cues to reach a shared understanding. It also considers the context, the field of experience of each communicator, and the relationship dynamics at play in a conversation, making it a more comprehensive approach to face-to-face communication.

10:02

🌐 Constitutive Model of Communication

The third paragraph discusses the constitutive model of communication, introduced by Robert Craig in 1999, which posits that communication is not just a tool for expressing social reality but also a means of creating it. This model sees communication as the primary social process that shapes our society, relationships, and lives. It argues that communication is constitutive, actively forming the social structures and psychological features of our world. The model draws parallels with the concept of 'organizing' over 'organization', emphasizing the ongoing activity of communication in establishing and maintaining social constructs. This perspective highlights the central role of communication in the creation and sustenance of our social world, beyond the mere exchange of information.

Keywords

💡Transmission Model of Communication

The transmission model of communication is a linear model that likens the process of sending a message to the transmission of data through a channel. It was introduced by Shannon and Weaver in 1948, emphasizing a sender who encodes a message and a receiver who decodes it. The model is central to the video's theme as it sets the stage for understanding basic communication processes. In the script, the model is described using the metaphor of an archer where the message either hits the target or not, illustrating the one-way nature of this model.

💡Noise

In the context of the transmission model, 'noise' refers to any interference that can disrupt the clarity of a message as it travels from sender to receiver. It is a critical concept in the video, as it highlights the potential for miscommunication or misunderstanding. The script mentions noise as a factor that might garble the message, such as static in a phone line, which can complicate the communication process.

💡Transactional Model of Communication

The transactional model of communication, also known as the interaction model, is a more dynamic and interactive approach to understanding communication. It was developed by Paul Watzlawick and others in the late 1960s to address the limitations of the transmission model. The model suggests that meaning is created through the interaction between senders and receivers, not contained within the words themselves. The video uses the metaphor of a dance to illustrate the back-and-forth dynamic of this model, emphasizing the shared meaning created between communicators.

💡Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is a key aspect of the transactional model, encompassing all forms of communication beyond the spoken or written word. It includes body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice. The script highlights the importance of nonverbal cues in shaping our interpretation of messages, as they provide additional layers of meaning beyond the verbal content.

💡Feedback

Feedback in communication is the response or reaction from the receiver that allows the sender to understand how the message was received. It is integral to the transactional model, as it enables the continuous adjustment of communication to ensure mutual understanding. The script mentions feedback as a way to ensure that communication is not just one-way but involves an ongoing exchange between participants.

💡Shared Meaning

Shared meaning is the mutual understanding that participants in a communication process reach through interaction. It is a central concept in the transactional model, as it represents the goal of effective communication. The script uses the example of a conversation about buying a car to illustrate how shared meaning is negotiated and established through dialogue.

💡Field of Experience

The field of experience refers to the personal attitudes, beliefs, values, and psychological influences that shape an individual's interpretation of messages. In the script, it is described as the lens through which we filter and make sense of verbal and nonverbal cues in communication, highlighting the subjective nature of message decoding.

💡Content and Relationship Dynamics

Content and relationship dynamics refer to the dual focus of communication on both the information being exchanged and the interpersonal relationships being formed or maintained. The script explains that while we exchange information, our communication also involves relationship dynamics, such as tone of voice and body language, which contribute to the overall meaning and effectiveness of the interaction.

💡Constitutive Model of Communication

The constitutive model, or constitutive theory of communication, posits that communication is not just a means of conveying information but is the fundamental process that creates and sustains social reality. Introduced by Robert Craig in 1999, this model is the most recent of the three discussed in the video and emphasizes the active role of communication in shaping society, relationships, and individual lives.

💡Organizing

The term 'organizing' is used in the script to contrast with the static term 'organization,' highlighting the dynamic and ongoing process of communication that creates and maintains social structures. It is mentioned in the context of Carl Weick's work and serves as an example of how communication is seen as a constitutive force in society.

Highlights

Introduction of three main models of communication found in textbooks: transmission, transactional, and constitutive models.

Explanation of the transmission model by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, with a technological perspective from their work at Bell Telephone Laboratories.

Description of the sender-encoding-message process and its transmission through a channel to a receiver in the transmission model.

Inclusion of noise as an interfering factor in the transmission model, potentially garbling the message during decoding and reception.

The linear, one-way nature of the transmission model, likened to a pipeline or an archer blindfolded, emphasizing sent and received messages without feedback.

Critique of the transmission model for lacking feedback and nonverbal communication, a significant weakness for understanding face-to-face communication.

Introduction of the transactional model by Paul Watzlawick in 1967, focusing on interactional features of communication.

Emphasis on meaning being created through interaction in the transactional model, rather than being contained within words.

The transactional model's view of people as simultaneous senders and receivers, integrating nonverbal communication and feedback.

The axiom 'You cannot not communicate' from the transactional model, highlighting the constant sending of messages, intentional or not.

Use of the dance metaphor for the transactional model, illustrating the dynamic, two-way nature of communication and shared meaning creation.

Discussion of context's influence on communication according to the transactional model, shaping interpretation based on setting and environment.

Introduction of the 'Field of Experience' concept, detailing how personal attitudes, beliefs, and values shape message interpretation.

Highlighting content and relationship dynamics in conversations, showing how communication is not just about exchanging information but also establishing relationships.

Introduction of the constitutive model by Robert Craig in 1999, proposing that communication is the primary force that creates our social world.

Craig's argument that communication is not just a tool but the central activity that produces all social forces in society.

Manning's 2014 agreement with Craig's view, stating that communication is a means of creating social reality, not just expressing it.

Comparison to Carl Weick's 1979 view on organizing as an ongoing activity that creates and maintains workplaces, emphasizing the role of communication.

Final thoughts on the importance of understanding the three models for grasping the complexity of communication in various contexts.

Transcripts

- [Narrator] There are various models

of communication, theoretical approaches,

and we are going to unpack three of the main ones

you'll see in most textbooks.

The transmission model of communication,

the transactional model of communication,

and the constitutive model of communication.

(gentle music)

So first the transmission model of communication.

In 1948, Shannon & Weaver published an article

explaining this model.

They were working at Bell Telephone Laboratories

at the time so their approach

really shows that technological angle

on their thoughts.

In other words, they envisioned a sender

or source of information who encodes a message,

let's say into language for example,

then transmits that message through

a channel of some sort.

The message is then decoded on the other end

and received by a receiver.

So it's very reminiscent of the phone system.

So, for example, let's say I send my wife

a voice mail and it says "I'd like to buy a car."

That message goes through the communication system

and it arrives in her voice mail box.

And as soon as she listens to it,

the message has been sent and received.

Noise, however, is another part of this model.

Noise might interfere with the message

at any point along the way.

Maybe in the decoding and the receiving

of the message.

Let's say the message is garbled

or doesn't make sense on the other end

because something's wrong,

there's some static in the line so to speak.

Then that might complicate the communication process.

According to this model, communication has successfully

occurred when a message has been sent and received.

So in that way, it's a linear or one way model.

A lot of people use the pipeline as a metaphor

to describe it because let's say

a pipeline has oil going from one end

all the way and flowing down to the other end.

That communication goes in one direction.

I like to use the metaphor as the archer.

The archer has a bow and arrow

and when he or she releases that arrow,

it either hits the target or it doesn't.

Except in this archer metaphor,

the archer's really blindfolded

because according to this model,

communication has occurred when a message

has been sent and received,

but the archer doesn't necessarily know

when he or she's blindfolded if the arrow

hit the target, but as long as it has

hit the target, then communication has occurred.

So you'll notice there's no feedback

and no nonverbal communication in this model.

That's considered a major weakness to some people

in terms of how we understand face-to-face communication.

It's like a text message, an email,

a voice mail, an old fashioned telegraph

or even a letter in the mail.

You send it but you don't necessarily know

when and if the receiver

has actually received the message.

It goes one way and then as soon as they read that

or decode that message, then communication has occurred.

It's also sometimes called

the container model of communication.

Because the words, according to this model,

are thought to contain the meaning.

Everything you need to know, in other words,

all the meaning is contained in the words.

As all of the examples here illustrate,

this model is very useful for explaining how

information technology works and how communication works

any time you're sending it through some type of

technological communication channel.

As clear limits though, a lot of people criticize it

because it doesn't explain the complexities

and the human dynamics of face-to-face communication well.

The next model is the transactional model of communication

and it compensates for some of the limitations

of Shannon Weaver's one way linear model.

In 1967, Paul Watzlawick and his colleagues

built their model on some previous writings

and looked at the interactional features

of communication and tried to capture that

in their model.

It's sometimes called the Interaction Model.

Right after that, a couple years later,

in 1970, Dean Barnlund published his work

that expressed many of the same ideas

with slightly different wording,

but all of these concepts that were coming about

in 1967 to 1970 were all aligned and so when combined,

most textbooks refer to these models

and this approach as generally as

the transactional view or transactional

model of communication.

It has some key differences from

the Shannon and Weaver model.

This model, the transactional model,

they don't believe that meaning is contained

in the words.

Instead, they think meaning is in people.

Meaning comes about through the interaction.

So the communication process is largely

about creating shared meaning between

and among people.

You don't start out, for example,

understanding other people.

We have to work toward that through communication.

According to this model, people are both

senders and receivers at the same time

so this model integrates nonverbal communication

and feedback.

There's a saying or an axiom that goes with this model.

You cannot not communicate.

And that's another way of saying that you're really

always sending messages of some sort,

whether you realize it or not.

Whether you intend to or not

when you include things

like nonverbal communication of feedback.

You're always giving off some kind of vibe

that the other person is going to be picking up on.

So seven archer, or a pipeline as the metaphor,

this has got much more of a two way dynamic

feel to it and so I prefer the metaphor

of a dance, where you're dancing with a partner.

Where each communicator is learning the steps

from the other person as they go simultaneously.

And when it's done, they have reached

some similar understanding, some similar meaning,

for what they are trying to do in that dance.

And a lot of conversations are like that.

There's a back and forth,

there's a simultaneousness to it where you're

figuring out what you mean as you go along.

So once again, if I say I'd like to buy a car

and let's assume I am face-to-face this time

in the conversation with my wife,

we would have a back and forth discussion

about what exactly that meant and what kind

of car was I picturing and what kind of car

might she be picturing and hopefully,

if it goes well, at the end of that conversation,

we have reached some sense of shared meaning,

a type of meaning agreement about

what we mean when we say we'd like to buy a car.

This model has some other features

that add on to the Shannon and Weaver foundation.

For example, context shapes the way we process

this communication in every way.

If we're in a work setting versus

a private one-on-one setting.

If we're in a big crowd of people,

all those contextual features are going

to shape and influence the communication process.

According to the transactional model,

we also arrive at these interactions

with what we call a Field of Experience.

Each communicator has attitudes, beliefs,

values and psychological influences

that shape and form the interpretation

of our messages.

We look at the nonverbal and verbal cues

and because of all of those attitudes

and beliefs, we are making sense of them.

We are interpreting them in certain ways.

For me, this shows how the decoding

of messages as Shannon and Weaver called it,

is much more sophisticated and layered

than simply figuring out what the words mean.

You're reading the signals very carefully

and understanding things from a certain

point of view.

You're filtering everything you hear and see

through your field of experience.

According to this model, there's also

content and relationship dynamics at play

in a conversation so there's content

that we're exchanging.

That information that we're sharing back and forth.

But our communication also has

relationship dynamics to it as well.

Our tone of voice, our pace,

how we're looking at the other person.

We're all looking for certain cues

in a conversation.

We all see ourselves a certain way.

We all see the other person a certain way

and so we can read between the lines

and it's not just the content.

There's also that relationship dynamic

that gets established.

So most people agree that the transactional model

of communication's much better at capturing

the face-to-face realities of human relationships

and it makes up for a lot of the shortfalls

of the Shannon and Weaver model.

The third model we'll look at

is the constitutive model,

or the constitutive theory of communication.

In 1999, Robert Craig wrote an article

in the journal called Communication Theory

where he explained that communication is constitutive.

In other words, communication creates.

It produces our social world.

Robert Craig sees communication as

the driving force in our lives and our relationships.

Craig talks about how communication

is the central activity in our lives

that creates all other social forces in society.

He states, "communication is no secondary

phenomenon that can be explained by antecedent

psychological, sociological, cultural,

or economic factors; rather, communication itself

is the primary constitutive social process

that explains all of these factors.

Manning in 2014 had much the same view.

He said, "communication is not a mere tool

for expressing social reality,

but also a means of creating it."

This reminds me of something that Carl Weick said

a couple of decades earlier in 1979

when he wrote his book about organizing.

He said the word organization was too static

of a term to describe what's happening

in our workplaces.

Instead, he favored the term organizing

because he thought it captured that activity

that went into creating, establishing,

and maintaining our workplaces.

The concrete buildings and the brands

that we all know, didn't already exist.

They are the result of ongoing communication.

In fact, if we stopped interacting,

if we stopped communicating, stopped picking

up the phone, stopped going to meetings,

stopped making agreements, life

and organization would grind to a complete halt.

So in the same way, Robert Craig says

the economics, the social structures,

the psychological features of our social world

were established in the first place

by communication processes.

So communication constituted, or formed,

our society, our relationships and our lives.

So these three models, the transmission model,

the transactional model and the constitutive theory

of communication all have their own emphases.

They all shed light on different aspects

and take a different view of communication.

A better understanding of these three models,

especially in the ways they compare

and contrast will help you understand

the readings that you're doing

and the other kinds of research that you are exploring.