Earth 1 Billion Years Ago | Proterozoic Eon | Earth Documentary | Ancient Planet Trilogy | S1E03
Summary
TLDRThe script narrates Earth's early history, detailing the Huronian glaciation 2.4 billion years ago, a global ice age triggered by oxygen's rise and greenhouse gases' fall. It discusses how life survived near geothermal vents and the subsequent volcanic activity that ended the ice age. The script also covers the emergence of eukaryotic life, the 'boring billion' with stagnant life forms, and the Ediacaran period's strange creatures before the Cambrian explosion, setting the stage for Earth's diverse ecosystems.
Takeaways
- 🌐 The Huronian glaciation was a global freezing event 2.4 billion years ago that lasted until 2.1 billion years ago, causing even the equatorial regions to be covered in ice.
- 🌿 The Great Oxidation Event, caused by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria, led to the first mass extinction and a significant drop in greenhouse gases like CO2 and methane.
- 🧊 The formation of the supercontinent Rodinia contributed to the drop in CO2 levels as it trapped the gas in sediments, leading to global cooling.
- ⛷ The albedo effect, where ice and snow reflect sunlight, prevented heat accumulation and further cooled the Earth, contributing to the snowball Earth state.
- 🌋 Volcanic activity during glaciation periods released greenhouse gases, eventually helping Earth escape its frozen state.
- 🌞 Earth's optimal distance from the Sun was crucial in preventing it from remaining frozen like Mars.
- 🦠 Life, particularly near geothermal vents and fields, survived the ice ages in ice-free areas, suggesting life played a role in the snowball Earth.
- 🌿 The appearance of eukaryotes, such as ACOG microfossils, marked a significant step in the evolution of life, with some being the first single-celled algae.
- 🌱 The Ediacaran biota, including the mysterious rangeomorphs, appeared before the Cambrian explosion, showing a diversity of life forms that are unlike anything living today.
- 🐛 The discovery of Iaria warioa, a worm-like animal, indicates that organisms resembling modern animals were present before the Cambrian explosion.
- 🌏 The Ediacaran period ended with the breakup of Rodinia and the formation of new supercontinents like Pannotia, marking the end of the Proterozoic Eon and the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon, where life diversified significantly.
Q & A
What was the Huronian glaciation?
-The Huronian glaciation was a global freezing event that occurred around 2.4 billion years ago, causing even the equatorial regions to be covered in ice. It is believed to have lasted until 2.1 billion years ago.
What triggered the Huronian glaciation?
-The Huronian glaciation was likely triggered by a chain of successive factors, including the enrichment of the planet's atmosphere with oxygen by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria, which led to the replacement of greenhouse gases and a subsequent drop in global temperatures.
How did life survive during the snowball Earth period?
-Life survived during the snowball Earth period in ice-free areas near geothermal vents and fields that melted the ice around them, similar to conditions seen in Iceland and Antarctica today.
What role did volcanoes play in ending the snowball Earth state?
-Volcanoes played a crucial role by continuously pumping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere during the glaciation, eventually accumulating enough to warm the planet and break the icy state.
What was the significance of the Lomagundi Excursion?
-The Lomagundi Excursion was a period around 2.2 billion years ago when oxygen was abundant in the oceans and atmosphere, but there were no organisms to consume or breathe it. This period lasted for approximately 200 million years.
What were the first organisms capable of efficient use of oxygen?
-The first organisms capable of efficient use of oxygen were the eukaryotes, which had DNA neatly packed inside a nucleus and possessed mitochondria for respiration.
What is the significance of the ACOG microfossils?
-ACOG microfossils, dating back to 1.8 billion years, are significant as they are considered the oldest eukaryotic microfossils and possibly the first single-celled eukaryotic algae or phytoplankton.
What was unique about the organism Grapia spiralis?
-Grapia spiralis was a peculiar organism that appeared around 1.87 billion years ago, unique for its time due to its thin tube shape and length that could be seen with the naked eye.
What is the 'boring billion' and why was it considered boring?
-The 'boring billion' refers to a period between 1.8 billion to 800 million years ago when life on Earth stagnated with no complex organisms appearing and no drastic climate changes, making it a period of stability and little change.
What were the Rimac rifts and why are they significant?
-The Rimac rifts were a group of strange and almost alien-like organisms that appeared around 570 million years ago. They are significant because their structure is unknown in anything that lives today, and they represent a form of life that may have vanished long ago.
What does the discovery of Iaria warioka indicate about the early development of animals?
-The discovery of Iaria warioka, a tiny wormlike animal from the Ediacaran period, indicates that the first organisms resembling modern animals appeared before the Cambrian explosion, showing a gradual increase in complexity leading up to that event.
Outlines
🌐 Huronian Glaciation and the Snowball Earth
The script describes the Huronian glaciation, a global freezing event that occurred 2.4 billion years ago during the Proterozoic Eon, when even the equatorial regions were covered in ice. This event was triggered by a series of factors, including the Great Oxidation Event caused by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria, which enriched the atmosphere with oxygen and led to the first mass extinction. The replacement of greenhouse gases by oxygen caused a dramatic drop in global temperatures, leading to the formation of ice sheets. The albedo effect from the ice and snow further cooled the planet. Despite the harsh conditions, life survived in ice-free areas near geothermal vents. The Earth eventually escaped its frozen state 2.1 billion years ago, likely due to volcanic activity that released greenhouse gases and Earth's optimal distance from the Sun.
🌿 The Emergence of Eukaryotic Life
The script discusses the emergence of eukaryotic life around 1.9 billion years ago, characterized by more complex cells with a nucleus and mitochondria. The first eukaryotes were larger than prokaryotic cells and included a group known as ACOG, which might have been the first single-celled eukaryotic algae. The paragraph also mentions the appearance of Grania spiralis, an early organism that could be seen with the naked eye, and the mysterious Dagma banai, a 2.2 billion-year-old fossil that resembled modern fungi but appeared earlier than any known eukaryotic organism. The script also describes the 'boring billion' period, a time of stability with little change in life forms or climate, and the formation of the supercontinent Columbia.
🌿 The Boring Billion and the Rise of Complex Life
The script details the 'boring billion' period, a billion-year stretch with little change in life or climate, where oxygen-producing organisms coexisted with sulfur-using organisms. The oceans were stratified, with an oxygenated surface layer and an anoxic layer below. Towards the end of this period, oxygen levels increased, allowing for the emergence of complex life forms. The appearance of red algae and the first sexually reproducing organisms are highlighted. The script also discusses the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia and the changes in life in the oceans, including the first animals or metazoans, possibly emerging as single-celled protists.
❄️ Cryogenian Ice Age and the Advent of Multicellular Life
The script describes the Cryogenian Ice Age, which lasted for 85 million years and was a period of severe glaciation. Volcanic activity eventually increased CO2 levels, ending the ice age. The formation of the supercontinent Pannotia coincided with another ice age, the Gaskiers glaciation. The script discusses the appearance of strange and alien-like creatures during the Ediacaran period, including the rangeomorphs, which had a unique structure not seen in modern life. It also mentions the proarticulates, a group of organisms that lacked mouths and guts, and the discovery of cholesterol in their fossils, suggesting they might have been animals.
🐛 The Ediacaran Fauna and the Dawn of Modern Animals
The script highlights the Ediacaran period, where the first large, complex multicellular organisms appeared. It discusses the discovery of Iaria warioa, a tiny worm-like animal that made burrows, indicating the presence of modern animal-like organisms before the Cambrian explosion. The paragraph also mentions the appearance of other Ediacaran creatures like Kimberella, which might have been an early mollusk, and the gradual increase in complexity of burrows made by worm-like animals. The script concludes by emphasizing the 4 billion-year journey of life on Earth that led to the current diversity of life forms.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Huronian Glaciation
💡Great Oxidation Event
💡Greenhouse Gases
💡Albedo Effect
💡Volcanoes
💡Eukaryotes
💡Cryoconite Holes
💡Snowball Earth
💡Boring Billion
💡Rodinia
💡Ediacaran Biota
Highlights
The Huronian glaciation, a global freezing event 2.4 billion years ago, caused by a chain of successive factors.
Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria enriched the atmosphere with oxygen, causing the great oxidation event and a mass extinction.
Oxygen replaced greenhouse gases, leading to a dramatic drop in carbon dioxide and methane levels, causing global cooling.
The formation of the supercontinent Rodinia contributed to the decrease in CO2 levels.
Albedo effect from ice and snow reflected sunlight, preventing heat accumulation and further cooling the Earth.
Life was responsible for the snowball Earth state, with glaciers advancing and retreating for 300 million years.
Ice-free areas near geothermal vents provided habitats for life to survive the freezing catastrophe.
Volcanoes played a crucial role in ending the snowball Earth state by releasing greenhouse gases.
Earth's position at the optimal distance from the Sun was key to escaping the snowball state.
The Lomagundi Excursion was a period of abundant oxygen with no organisms to consume it, lasting around 200 million years.
Eukaryotes, organisms with complex internal structures, emerged around 2 billion years ago.
ACOG, a group of mysterious microfossils, were some of the earliest eukaryotic life forms.
Grania spiralis, a peculiar organism, appeared in the fossil record, possibly an early true eukaryotic alga.
Dagma banayi, a 2.2 billion-year-old fossil, is a problematic find suggesting early life on land.
The 'boring billion' was a period of stability with no complex organisms or drastic climate changes.
The end of the boring billion marked the beginning of the Ediacaran period, with the emergence of complex life forms.
Rangeomorphs were large, complex multicellular organisms that appeared before the Cambrian explosion.
Proarticulates were strange organisms that appeared in the Ediacaran period, possibly early animals.
Kimberella, an Ediacaran creature, is thought to be an early mollusk, indicating the emergence of modern animal types.
Iaria wario, a tiny wormlike animal, was a significant discovery indicating the appearance of modern animals before the Cambrian explosion.
The Ediacaran period ended with life diversifying into various forms and shapes, setting the stage for the Phanerozoic Eon.
Transcripts
[Music]
[Applause]
[Music]
snow ice shivering winds and Frozen
wastelands a white silence stretches
from Horizon to
Horizon this is our planet 2.4 billion
years ago at the very beginning of the
protozoic Eon the world entered a state
of global glaciation when even the
equatorial regions were covered in
ice This Global freezing event known as
the huronian glaciation lasted until 2.1
billion years ago and is believed to
have been triggered by a chain of
successive
factors as we already know by 2.4
billion years ago photosynthesizing CYO
bacteria had enriched our planet's
atmosphere with oxygen causing the great
oxidation event although this enrichment
ultimately created an environment that
could sustain complex life it came at a
price it likely caused the planet's
first mass extinction to most of the
microorganisms that populated Earth at
that time oxygen was a poisonous
gas but an even more dramatic
consequence of this event was that
oxygen replaced greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere here the amount of carbon
dioxide which is known for keeping our
planet warm dropped dramatically and
methane and even more powerful
greenhouse gas which had dominated our
atmosphere since the hadian Eon was
reduced to the trace levels we see
today one reason why the concentration
of CO2 dropped was the formation of the
first large supercontinent
canaland when this large land mass
became exposed to the air CO2 which was
dissolved in Rain droplets fell to the
rocky ground ground and became trapped
in the sediments being withdrawn from
the
atmosphere with much less greenhouse gas
to trap the heat the global climate
became cooler and ice sheets started to
build in the polar regions and the
highlands as the ice grew the albo
effect kicked in White glaas and snow
covered areas reflected the sunlight
back to space preventing the atmosphere
from accumulating heat thus cooling it
even
further it didn't take long for the
enormous glassiers to build up and
advance from the north and south to meet
at the
Equator this was not the first time that
glaciers had appeared on Earth in fact
2.9 billion years ago there was an Ice
Age known as the pongola glaciation but
it was nothing like as severe as the
huronian event now for the first time
the whole planet became icebound and
entered a state known as the snowball
Earth and apparently life was at least
one of the factors responsible for it
it was a time of several long ice ages
when glaciers Advanced and retreated for
300 million years with the longest Ice
Age lasting for 100 million
years but how did life survive this
freezing
catastrophe although Earth was mostly
Frozen there were some icef free areas
they formed near geothermal Vents and
Fields that would melt the ice around
them just like we see in Iceland and
Antarctica today such places would have
been perfect for life to survive and
even
Thrive some microorganisms could have
lived in subglacial Lakes like they do
today in Antarctica's Lake
vosto others could have lived in air
bubbles that were frozen in the
ice finally they could have occupied
cryoconite holes that melted in ice
under the accumulation of mineral dust
and volcanic ash such holes are present
in many modern day glassiers
[Music]
Earth remained Frozen until 2.1 billion
years ago when it suddenly broke through
its icy
trap but what made it possible for our
planet to escape its snowball
State the first answer is volcanoes
during the entire time of glaciation
they pumped greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere until there was a sufficient
amount to keep the planet warm
again the second answer would be our
fortunate position position at the
optimal distance from the Sun if Earth
had been located marginally farther out
it would probably have remained Frozen
until today being not much different
from cold dry
Mars 2.2 billion years ago Earth entered
an unusual time known as the lomag
Gandhi Excursion when oxygen in the
oceans and atmosphere was in abundance
but there were no organisms to consume
or breathe it things probably remained
like this for around 200 million years
until the first organisms capable of
efficient use of oxygen
arrived these organisms were the
ukar in contrast to the simple internal
structure of already existing
procaryotes with their genes freely
swimming in cytoplasm inside of the cell
walls ukar Nots had their DNA neatly
packed inside the nucleus in the center
of the
cell moreover they possessed very
important organel called mitochondria
that were responsible for breathing
oxygen and producing energy while early
ukaria were still single- celled
organisms they were 10 times larger than
procaryotic
cells It is believed that the earliest
ukar existed at least 1.9 billion years
ago while the first known eukaryotic
fossils come from 1.8 billion year old
rocks these oldest ukari belong to a
diverse group of mysterious microfossils
collectively called ACOG which in Greek
means Unknown Origin today scientists
believe that they were the first single
cell ucareo algae or the first
phytoplankton of the protozoic
oceans although acox were minute
organisms no larger than 0.15 mm across
they were giants in comparison to
procaryotic life forms some of these
eukaryotic acox like dicos were round
with smooth surfaces While others like
shos fidum were covered with tiny spines
or
processes there is even a one .6 billion
year old spiny ACR talk called Tania
whose morphology suggests that it might
be related to
fungi at least 1.87 billion years ago
but possibly even 200 million years
earlier A peculiar organism called
grania spiralis appears in the fossil
record unlike anything else that lived
at this time in the oceans thin tube
shaped grania reached several centimet
in length and therefore could be seen
with the naked eye lived in water and
was likely attached with one end to the
bottom sediments scientists are still
not certain what grapa was while some
suggest it was a colony or string of
procaryotic CA bacteria others consider
it to be an early true eukaryotic alga
this mysterious organism survived and
remained virtually unchanged for another
1.2 billion years almost until the end
of the protozoic
Eon while scientists remain puzzled by
graa there is another enigmatic organism
that seems to be completely out of place
on the time scale meet dagma banayi an
extremely problematic 2.2 billion year
old fossil from South Africa it was
small from 0.3 to 1.8 mm in size and
shaped like a tiny n with an opening at
the top but the most fascinating thing
about dagma was that it lived on land
its tiny fossils were connected into
bunches by threads on the surface of
ancient soil strikingly resembling
modern fungi the problem is it appears
in the fossil record much earlier than
any known eukariotic organism therefore
dagma must have been something simpler
than plant animal or fungus perhaps it
was a procaryotic
organism if not the emergence of ukar
would have to be pushed back at least
300 million
years nevertheless somewhere during the
first half of the protozoic Eon the
earliest ukari ODS appeared marking the
beginning of multicellular Life as we
know it giving rise to three new
biological
kingdoms plants
fungi and animals which are all forms of
ukar
[Music]
Nots if we were to look at our planet
from space 1.8 billion years ago we
would see the land masses combined into
a super continent called Colombia or
Nuna it existed from 1.82 to 1.3 3 5
billion years ago until it broke apart
as every supercontinent eventually did
the land most likely looked reddish like
the Martian surface but on Earth it was
surrounded by Blue oceans and topped
with a layer of white curly
clouds as oxygen became widespread in
the atmosphere the soil started to
corrode the weathering process activated
by oxygen started to destroy granites
and bassils that contained iron turning
them into Rusty red soil
between 1.8 billion to 800 million years
ago life on Earth was
stagnating no complex organisms appeared
and no cataclysms or drastic climate
changes occurred the history of Earth
was decidedly dull and uneventful for a
full billion
years scientists call this period the
boring billion but what was the cause of
this continuous and tedious stability
and did nothing interesting actually
happen for such a long stretch of time
indeed life was already capable of
oxygenic photosynthesis oxygen producing
ciona bacteria were in place but for
some reason the atmosphere and oceans
did not contain enough oxygen to sustain
any complex life forms something was
keeping the oxygen levels too
low at this time oxygen relasing life
forms coexisted and competed with sulfur
using organisms green and purple sulfur
bacteria and methanogens are Kia that
produced
methane neither of the lateral organisms
produced
oxygen the oceans during the boring
billion were stratified there was a thin
3 to 6 M deep surface layer that was
oxygenated and inhabited by
photosynthesizing single celled green
algae including
acox below this clean layer and down to
the bottom the waters were completely
anoxic and populated with purple sulfur
microbes and methanogens
[Music]
towards the end of the boring billion
when oxygen producing organisms finally
outnumbered sulfur using bacteria as
well as methane generating ARA oxygen
level started to increase Paving the way
for the emergence of complex life
forms by 1 billion years ago a red alga
called borha discovered in the Canadian
Arctic appears in the fossil record
despite its Antiquity it strikingly
resembles bangia a genus of red Alan
that exists
today fascinatingly borha which
inhabited the shallow sea floor just a
little more than 1 billion years ago had
male and female spores making it the
first known sexually reproducing
organism in 2020 Chinese scientists
discovered A peculiar fossilized green
seaweed called protus anticus that came
from 1 billion year old rocks it was
only 2 mm in size but of enormous
importance importance it may be the
oldest fossilized green plant ever
found as we have just seen the boring
billion was a time when a number of
important changes took place and
probably wasn't that dll after
all when it officially ended 800 million
years ago the land masses assembled into
another supercontinent called rodinia
which derives from the Russian verb to
give birth and was surrounded by the
ocean Mar IA from the Russian word Mir
which means
world the land was still devoid of any
complex life only bacterial mats
surrounded the water bodies and wet
areas but in the ocean things were quite
different while bacterial mats like soft
and colorful carpets covered the bottom
between mounds and pillars of
stromatolites the water column was
populated with microscopic organisms and
substantial areas of the seaf Flor were
covered with CP seaweeds
it's likely that the first animals or
metazoans appeared at this time in the
form of single cell protists called
coagulants these organisms look like
little Sachs with a collar around a
thread-like appendage called a
flatulum as the flatulum Beats it pulls
water through the collar where all of
the food particles are
collected Co vulet are known to form
colonies where newborn cells don't float
apart but stay together with the others
in cooperation they Ed their flatula to
create a powerful filtering
system at some point different cells
started performing different functions
some were responsible for feeding While
others formed the outer protective layer
and this is how true metaz zones
emerged sponges are believed to be the
very first animals to appear on Earth
indeed the earliest animal fossils
belong to a sponge-like organism
discovered in Namibia that existed 76
million years
ago it was named otavia antiqua ranging
from half a millimeter to 5 mm in size
otavia fed on algae and bacteria sucking
them through their tiny pores into a
central body cavity where the food was
processed these animals likely formed
colonies that sat on the seaf Flor
between algae filtering water for
food around 720 million years ago earth
started to cool down again in fact there
were at least two subsequent glaciations
and quite possibly our planet turned
into a giant Noble once again these
glaciations are thought to have been
caused by similar factors that caused
the huronian event the increase of
oxygen in the atmosphere and and
chemical weathering as the rodinia
supercontinent started to split apart
both processes removed CO2 from the
atmosphere making it cooler this Ice Age
lasted for 85 million years until 635
million years ago and the whole time
period was named the
cryogenian once again volcanoes
eventually replenished the atmosphere
with CO2 and th the global ice cover
returning the climate to normal and
Earth has never since experienced such
severe glaciations as seen in protozoic
times around 620 million years ago the
majority of land masses gathered
together in the Southern Hemisphere and
formed another supercontinent called
penosa its assemblage coincided with
another Ice Age called the gasas
glaciation but it lasted only 340,000
years and was not nearly as severe as
the previous
ones it appears that at that time Earth
just managed to escape another snowall
state
the final 994 million years of the
protozoic Eon are named The Ed acine
period And this is when truly strange
and almost alien creatures
appeared around 570 million years ago in
what is now Newland Canada 1 kilometer
below the water surface on the dark sea
floor we encounter the first large
complex multicellular
organisms spindle-shaped bodies of
fractofusus that reached up to 40 cm lay
on the soft microbial mats connected to
their young with stolen like
filaments cabbage like bread gatier
reached about 20 cm and was attached to
the bottom with a bulbous hold fast in
the center of several leaf-like
petals fronds of charia Mason that
looked like large feathers bending back
and forth in the water currents reached
up to 60
cm while 2 m tall trapaca towered over
this deep water garden
all of these organisms are collectively
called Rim offs and are distinguished by
their unusual structure that is unknown
in anything that lives today their
bodies branched into fractal modules of
four subsequently smaller orders each
module was composed of a series of
smaller modules that looked exactly like
the full
creature scientists are having
difficulty determining what these
organisms actually were lyans animals
fungky giant single- celled
creatures or were they a completely
different form of life that vanished
long ago one that deserves to be put
into a separate now extinct
Kingdom while the debate is still on we
know for certain that rangeomorphs were
not plants although superficially they
looked like them plants require sunlight
to perform photosynthesis but these
organisms lived far too deep down in the
water for light to reach them
another question is how and on what did
these creatures
feed the common thinking is that they
were practicing osmotrophic feeding a
passive absorption of dissolved organic
carbon from the water this is probably
why the rangeomorphs grew fractally
increasing their surface area to absorb
as many nutrients as
possible later around 560 million years
ago we still encountered rangeomorphs
like Chia and six lob rangia but along
with them new types of strange organisms
start to appear in the fossil record
they look like pancakes that were lying
on the top of microbial mats most likely
feeding on them this group of Ed Acron
biota has been named the pro articulates
and is mostly known from ancient shallow
Marine environments of Northwestern
Russia and Southern
Australia two of the most well-known Pro
articulates are the 25 cm long yoria and
and its larger 1 M long relative
dickinsonia these creatures consisted of
two rows of tubes or isomers that
radiated to the sides from the central
axis of the
organism the most confounding part about
these creatures is that they lack mouths
and guts as well as any external sensory
or reproductive
organs scientists also think that Pro
articulates were able to move around on
the sea bottom in search of new food
sources for example when dickinsonia had
abs absorbed the entire microbial mat
beneath its body it moved to another
location to keep feeding indeed there
are traces of fossils of dickinsonia and
yoria that show multiple imprints of the
same organism hinting to its Mobility
additionally a recent study of lipid
biomarkers extracted from dickinsonia
fossils revealed something fascinating
cholesterol this indicates that they
might have been animals after
all while the Affinity of dickinsonia
and its kin is still debated there was
another edcan creature called kimberella
whose classification is more or less
agreed upon trace fossils suggest that
it was mobile bilaterally symmetrical
and might have possessed a feeding organ
with teeth similar to that of mollusks
this is why kimberella is thought to be
a ban animal possibly an early mollusk
that grazed upon microbial mats as
modern snails
do but the most convincing Discovery
indicating that the first organisms
resembling modern animals appeared in
edcan times before the Cambrian
explosion was made in 2020 through most
of the second part of the edcan period
there is fossil evidence of barrows that
with time gradually increased in
complexity and were most certainly made
by wormlike animals but the makers of
these Burrows had remained
elusive finally rocks from South
Australia revealed 555 milliony Old
fossils of a tiny wormlike animal that
was named Iaria wara it lived lived and
made its Burrows among other Racine
organisms of Uncertain Origins but Iaria
was something far more
familiar while this several MIM long
organism was neither impressive nor
pretty it's hard to overestimate its
significance scientists believe that
animals like Iaria arrived just before
the time when life radiated into a huge
variety of fora such as worms molis
arthropods and even vertebrates
Earth's long 4 billion year Journey was
a prerequisite for life to achieve
today's wonderful
diversity after the protozoic Eon was
over life literally burst into various
forms and
shapes during the next 540 million years
in what is called the fanoro Eon life
inhabited all possible ecological
environments from far
oceans to
land and even the
air changing this ancient Planet into
the place we call home
[Music]
n
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