Operating system concept P1 week1
Summary
TLDRThis script delves into the role of operating systems as intermediaries between users and computer hardware, facilitating efficient program execution. It covers the evolution of computing, from military and governmental uses to multifunction mainframes, and the impact of Moore's Law on computer capabilities. The script discusses various storage structures, including volatile and nonvolatile memory, and the significance of interrupts for device communication. It also explores multiprocessor systems, highlighting symmetric multiprocessing, multicore processors, and nonuniform memory access. The advantages of blade servers and cluster systems for high availability and performance are also examined, emphasizing the importance of efficient resource management in modern computing environments.
Takeaways
- đ» The operating system serves as an intermediary between the user and computer hardware, providing a convenient and efficient environment for executing programs.
- đ§ Operating systems are complex and manage resources, defining outputs, inputs, and functions, and are used across various devices from IoT to cloud computing.
- đ„ïž A computer system can be divided into four parts: hardware, operating system, application programs, and users, with the operating system controlling the hardware and coordinating its use among applications.
- đ ïž The operating system is akin to a government, providing an environment for programs to perform useful work, and includes the kernel and system programs.
- đ Interrupts are signals used by hardware to get the CPU's attention, and are managed by the computer using interrupt service routines (ISR).
- đŸ Storage structures are crucial for loading instructions into the CPU, with main memory (RAM) being volatile and requiring non-volatile storage for long-term data retention.
- đ Multiprocessor systems, including multicore processors, are prevalent in modern computing, offering increased throughput and efficiency.
- đ Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) systems allow CPUs to access local memory quickly without contention, but accessing remote memory can introduce performance penalties.
- đ Clustered systems gather multiple CPUs or nodes to provide high availability and high-performance computing, with each node potentially running its own operating system.
- đ High availability in clusters is achieved through redundancy, allowing service to continue even if one or more systems fail, with the ability to gracefully degrade service in the face of hardware failures.
Q & A
What is the primary function of an operating system?
-The primary function of an operating system is to act as an intermediary between the user and the computer hardware, providing an environment in which users can execute programs in a convenient and efficient manner.
How does the operating system control the hardware?
-The operating system controls the hardware by coordinating its use among various application programs and users, ensuring that resources are properly allocated and managed.
What are the different types of devices that operating systems can be found on?
-Operating systems can be found on a variety of devices including mainframe computers, personal computers, enterprise computers, cloud computing environments, smartphones, and Internet of Things devices.
What is the role of the operating system in the context of a computer system?
-In the context of a computer system, the operating system acts as a manager that controls the hardware and coordinates its use among various application programs and users, ensuring proper utilization of resources.
What is the significance of Moore's Law in the evolution of computer systems?
-Moore's Law predicts that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit will double approximately every 18 months, which has held true and led to computers gaining in functionality while shrinking in size, leading to a variety of uses and types of operating systems.
How do interrupts function within the operating system?
-Interrupts function as signals that tell the computer's main processor to stop what it is doing and pay attention to something else, such as a device that needs to communicate with the CPU.
What is the purpose of an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)?
-The purpose of an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) is to handle the task associated with an interrupt and ensure that everything returns to normal afterward, similar to directing traffic and then ensuring it flows smoothly again.
Why is direct memory access (DMA) important in computer systems?
-Direct memory access (DMA) is important because it allows device controllers to transfer a whole block of data directly between the device and main memory without involving the CPU, making data transfer more efficient, especially for slow devices.
What are the advantages of multiprocessor systems?
-The advantages of multiprocessor systems include increased throughput, as they can accomplish more work in less time by sharing resources among multiple processors or cores.
What is the difference between symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and non-uniform memory access (NUMA)?
-Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) involves multiple processors sharing a single memory space, whereas non-uniform memory access (NUMA) provides each CPU with its own local memory, which can be accessed more quickly without contention over the system interconnect.
How do clustered systems enhance the performance and reliability of computing?
-Clustered systems enhance performance and reliability by distributing the workload across multiple interconnected computers, allowing for high availability and the continuation of services even if one or more systems in the cluster fail.
Outlines
đ» Introduction to Operating Systems
The paragraph introduces the concept of an operating system as an intermediary between the user and computer hardware. It emphasizes the role of the operating system in providing a user-friendly environment for executing programs efficiently. The operating system is described as a complex system that manages inputs, outputs, and functions, and is essential for various devices, including IoT devices, smartphones, personal computers, and enterprise systems. The paragraph also discusses the evolution of computing and the importance of the operating system in managing hardware and coordinating the use of resources among different applications.
đ ïž Understanding Interrupts and Device Management
This paragraph delves into the intricacies of interrupts in computing. It explains how device drivers communicate with hardware and how interrupts signal the CPU to pause its current task to handle a new task. The analogy of a popup grabbing attention is used to describe how interrupts work. The paragraph further discusses how interrupts are managed using a table of interrupt service routines (ISRs), which handle specific interrupts and ensure system continuity. Advanced interrupt handling features are also mentioned, including prioritization and efficient dispatching, which are crucial for system performance, especially in time-sensitive processes.
đŸ Memory and Storage Structures in Computing
The paragraph discusses various memory and storage structures used in computers. It explains the necessity of loading programs into memory, specifically main memory or RAM, to run them. The paragraph also touches on the use of different memory types, such as volatile and non-volatile memory, and the trade-offs between speed, capacity, and volatility. It describes the hierarchy of memory, with faster memory being closer to the CPU and slower memory further away. The concept of direct memory access (DMA) is introduced as a method for efficient data transfer between devices and memory without CPU intervention. The paragraph also mentions the evolution of storage technologies and the role of buses and switches in data communication within a computer system.
đ Multiprocessor and Multicore Systems
This paragraph explores the advantages of multiprocessor and multicore systems, which aim to increase computational power and efficiency. It discusses symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and its challenges, such as efficient processor utilization and shared data structures. The paragraph also covers the evolution of multiprocessor systems to multicore systems, where multiple computing cores exist on a single chip. The benefits of such systems, including faster on-chip communication and lower power consumption, are highlighted. Additionally, the paragraph touches on non-uniform memory access (NUMA) systems and their ability to scale effectively, although they may face performance penalties when accessing remote memory.
đ Clustered Systems and High Availability
The paragraph introduces clustered systems, which consist of multiple individual computers working together to provide high availability and performance. It differentiates between multiprocessor and clustered systems, with the latter being loosely coupled and often connected via networks. The paragraph discusses the use of clustering for high availability, where the system continues to operate even if one or more nodes fail. It also mentions the concept of graceful degradation and fault tolerance in clustered systems. The importance of parallelization in cluster computing is highlighted, along with the need for special software and applications designed to run in parallel. The paragraph concludes by discussing the role of storage area networks (SANs) in enhancing cluster performance and reliability.
đ Access Control and Cluster Technology
This paragraph focuses on the importance of access control and locking in clustered systems to ensure data integrity and prevent conflicting operations. It discusses the role of distributed lock managers in managing access to shared data. The paragraph also highlights the rapid evolution of cluster technology, with some systems supporting thousands of nodes. The benefits of storage area networks in attaching multiple hosts to shared storage are mentioned, along with the performance and reliability improvements they bring. The paragraph concludes by emphasizing the ongoing advancements in cluster technology and their impact on computing landscapes.
Mindmap
Keywords
đĄOperating System
đĄHardware
đĄSoftware
đĄInterrupt
đĄDevice Driver
đĄMultiprocessor System
đĄMulticore Processor
đĄNon-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA)
đĄClustered System
đĄStorage Structure
đĄDirect Memory Access (DMA)
Highlights
Operating systems act as intermediaries between users and computer hardware.
The purpose of an operating system is to provide a user-friendly environment for executing programs.
Operating systems are large and complex, managing system resources with defined inputs, outputs, and functions.
They are used in a variety of devices, including IoT devices, smartphones, PCs, enterprise computers, and cloud computing environments.
A computer system can be divided into four parts: hardware, operating system, application programs, and users.
Hardware provides the basic computing resources, while application programs define how these resources are used to solve problems.
Operating systems control hardware and coordinate its use among various application programs and users.
The operating system is compared to a government, providing an environment for programs to perform useful work.
The user view of a computer system is through interfaces like monitors, keyboards, and mice.
Early computers were used for military and governmental purposes, such as code breaking and trajectory plotting.
Moore's Law predicts the doubling of integrated circuit capacity every 18 months, which has held true.
There is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes an operating system; it varies greatly across systems.
Interrupts are signals that tell the CPU to stop its current task and attend to something else.
Interrupt service routines (ISR) manage the tasks associated with interrupts and ensure normal system operation afterward.
Advanced operating systems require more sophisticated interrupt handling features.
The CPU uses an interrupt request line to check for device signals after each instruction.
Multiprocessor systems are prevalent in today's computing landscape, from mobile gadgets to servers.
Multicore processors can be more efficient than multiple single-core chips due to faster on-chip communication.
Nonuniform memory access (NUMA) systems allow CPUs to access local memory quickly without contention.
Blade servers are a type of system where multiple processor boards are placed in the same chassis.
Clustered systems gather multiple CPUs together, providing high availability and high-performance computing.
Storage structures are organized into a hierarchy based on capacity and access time, with trade-offs between size and speed.
Direct memory access (DMA) allows device controllers to transfer data directly between devices and main memory, bypassing the CPU.
Transcripts
hello everyone so start a course
operating system
concept so uh an operating system access
intermediary between user and computer
hardware so as you know the propose of
operating system is provide environment
which user can execute programs in
convenient efficient manner so
operating system is large and complex
system H pie should well delayed portion
of system with carefully Define outputs
inputs and
functions operating system are overwar
from cards and some application and some
Internet of Things devices smart phones
yeah personal
computers some Enterprise computers
cloud computing
environment so let's move to the so
overall computer system uh computer uh
can divide roll into four parts which is
Hardware operating system application
program and user Hardware can Central uh
Processing Unit uh the memory and the
input output device provides a basic
Computing resource for the system the
application program such as word
processor spreadsheets capillar and web
browser defines the ways to which these
resource are used to solve user computer
problems the operating system controls
the hardware and coordinates it use
among the various application programs
for the various user so we can also view
computer system and consist of Hardware
software and data so the operating
system provides means for proper use of
this resource and the operating um
operation of computer system and
operating system is similar to a
government like government is Bor from
useful function it's by itself it simply
provides environment with which programs
can do useful work don't understand more
fully the operating system role we
explore some
more viewpoints that user of the of the
system so user view the user view of the
computer R is according interface being
used many computer users SE with laptop
a front of PC consist of monitor
keyboard and mouse so this such system
is designed one user to monopolize its
resource the goal of maximizing
the work that user is performing in this
case the operating system is designed
mostly is of use with some attention
paid for to Performance and security and
non paid to resource
utilization uh how various Hardware
software sources are shared so Computing
started as an experiment to determine
what could be done and quickly move to
fix propose system for military use
before such as code breaking and
trajectory plotting and governmental use
such as sensus calculations those early
computer involved into General propose
multifunction main frames and that's
when pring system were burn so in 1960
Mo La predicts that the number
transition integrate circuit would
double every 18 months and prediction
has held true so computer gain in
function
shrunken sze leading W number of uses
was number of variety operating system
additional we have no Universal accepted
definition of what is part of the
operating
system and simply Viewpoint is that this
includes everything eventor ships when
you order the operating system the
features include however VAR greatly
across system some system take up less
than a megabyte of space Cas and lack
even full screen editor where is other
required Gaby of space and Bas entirely
a graphical window system a more common
definition and one of the we we usually
follow that operating system is one of
program running all times on the
computer usually call it the kernel
along with kernel there are two other
type of program system programs which
are assed with operating system but not
necessarily part of the kernel and
applications uh programs which include
all programs not associated with
operation of the
system so
interrupts um a computer when program
wants to do something like read from the
keyboard write a file it talks to device
driver
yeah so this driver communication with
Device control which manage the actual
Hardware like keboard or storage
device when device controller finish it
task uh it needs to tell device drivers
that is done this communication is done
using something called an interrupt an
interrupt is like a signal that tells
the computer main process to stop what
is doing and pay attention to something
else imagine you're working on a
computer and suddenly popup appears that
popups like interrupt it grabs your
attention and ask you to do something
else so in the computer case it's a
interrupt asking CPU to do something
specific to manage this interrupts
efficiently the computer use a table
that contains pointers to different
roads to know how to handle speciic
interrupts so these roots are called
interrupt service
routines uh when interrupts happens the
CPU looks in the table find the right
ACR and follows its
instructions the ACR not only completes
the task of SE with interrupt but also
make sure that everything does back to
normal afterward it's like traffic of
contemporary directing traffic and then
making sure
flow smoothly again so interrupts a way
for Hardware to get CPU attention and
the computer uses routines to manage to
handle these
interruptions ensuring that everything
works smoothly despite the sudden poses
in nor in the normal flow of
task so the next slide
implementation basic interrupt mechanism
and a computer works like this so CPU
has special line call to interrupt
request line after each instruction the
CPU checks this line if a device control
signals and interrupt on this line the
CPU reads interrupt number and jumps to
the corresponding interrupt handle
routin using this number as an index the
interrupt
Vector the handle saves State processes
interrupt restores that state and
Returns the CPU to its previous state
however mod operating system require
more advanced interrup handling
features different
handling ability to delay interrupt
handling during critical processing
efficient dispatching quick and
effective selection of right interrup
handle for device multi-level interrupts
capability to discussion between the
high and low priority interrupt and
respond accordingly modeling CPU in
interrupt controller Hardware provide
these features CPUs typically have two
interrupt request line one non maskable
interrupt and another markable interrupt
line used by device controllers
interrupt chaining it techniques when
they interrupt letter points to list of
handlers solving the problem problem of
having more devices than Vector elements
the interrupt Vector designed for CPUs
like Intel processor used different
range of non-maskable and maskable
events additionally interrupts riority
levels all to CPU to manage low and high
priority interrupts
efficiently the system ensure urin work
is handled first and summary interrupts
a crucial for handling a synchronous
events in modeling operating system
there are triggered by device controller
and Hardware fults a priority system
ensur that high priority task can
interrupt lower priority ones efficien
interrup handling is vital for optimal
system performance especially for time
sensitive
processes so storage structure the CPU
can load in struction only from memory
so any program must first be loaded into
memory to run the general proposed
computer run must also program from
reable memory call it main memory it
also call it Ram so memory main memory
commonly is Implement in a semiconductor
technology called Dynamic Random Access
Memory computer use other forms of
memory as well for example the first
program to run on computer power on is
bootst program which then loads the
operating
system since Ram ISAT loses its content
when power is turned off or otherwise
lost we us to hold the bootstrap program
instead of for this some other propose
the computer use
electrically arable progammable read
only memory and another forum for wi
storage that is infrequently reach to is
non
volle storage structure can be organized
into achy based on capacity and excess
time when trade off between size and
speed close to CPU smaller and faster
memory is used the system differ in
speed capacity whether they are volatile
or
nonvolatile vol
storage LS data when power is removed
requiring safekeeping in nonvolatile
storage the top four levels in ychy use
semiconductor memory with NVM device
like flashh memory at the for level
known for Speed flash memory is widely
used in mobile device and increasingly
in long-term storage for laptops desktop
and servers in the text the term
terminology used for storage includes
voltage storage simply refers to as
memory non voltage storage retains data
when power is lost primary focus on
storage secondary storage mechanical
envs example include G gdd optical disc
holographic storage and magnetic type
electrical nvs example include flash
memory V run SD and R mechanical storage
generally large and less expensive for
bite while electrical storage is caser
but smaller and faster a balanced
storage system use cost effective memory
while providing ample and expensive
nonvolatile storage cash may be utilized
to enhance performance Vues significant
difference in excess time or transfer
rate between components
and big part of operating system is
focus handling input output because it's
crucial for system relability and
performance in a compter system uh
various device communicate with each
other using common passway call it a bus
its earlier section we learned about
interrupt driving input or output which
is good for small data transfer but not
efficient for moving large amount of
data
like a nonvolatile storage to under this
we use something called direct memory
access which de withd Dem the device
controller can transfer a whole block of
data directly between the device and
Main memory without Bing the CPU
match so that means only the interrup is
needed per block of data making it more
efficient than having interruptor every
bite especially for slow devices while
device control is managing this task zpu
CPU is free to do other important
work some advanc system use switch
instead of bus for
communication this allows multiple
compon components to talk each other the
same time without competing for Shar bus
in such case di becomes even more more
effective uh so as you see all compan
computer system work
together uh in today Computing landscape
multiprocessor system are prevalent
across Ranch of devices from mobile
gadgets to service typically this system
consists two or more processor each heav
single core this processor sh resource
such computer bars memory and prefer
devices the main advantages
multiprocessor system is increase
through aiming to accomplish more work
in less
time the common approach is s symmetric
multiprocessing where H CPU perform all
task including both operating system
function and user processes while CMP
enables simulation execution of multiple
processes in efficien can be Aur if
processor are not optimally utilized
leading to EO and overload CPUs caral
system design including shared data
structure can address this challenge
alling for damic resource sharing among
processors the definition of
multiprocessor now extend to multicore
system where multiple Computing cores
exist on single chip multi system can be
more efficient than multiple single core
chips due to fast on chips
communication additionally single chip
with multiple core consumes less power
than several single core chips which is
crucial for energy efficient mobile
device and
laptops uh as you see on this figure we
show dual core design with two cores on
same processor chip and this design each
core has its own register set as well as
it own local cache often known as level
one
L1 uh cach notice that uh the level
two cash is local to cheap but is shared
by two processing
CS most architecture adops this approach
combining local and chared caches where
local lower level cash are generally
smaller and faster than higher level
shared caches aside from architecture
considerations such as cach memory and
bus contention a multicore processor
with and core appears to the operating
systems as and standard CPUs this
characteristics put pre pressure on
operating system designers and
application programmers to make
efficient use of this process course to
an issue P so virtually all mod
operating system including Windows maros
Linux as well Android iOS mobile system
support multicore CMP
systems additional uh CPU to
multiprocessor system will increase
computing power however as successed
earlier the concept does not scale very
well and once we add to many inuse
contention for System bus
becomes um bot linic for performance and
performance begins to
degrade an alternative approach insists
to provide hcpu with its own local
memory that accessed via small last
local bus so the CPU are connect by
shared system can interconnect so that's
all CPU share one physical add space
this approach known as nonuniform memory
access on num yeah as you see on this
figure the advantages is that when CPU
access it local memory not only is fast
but there also no contention over the
system
interconnect those numer system can
scale more effectively as more processor
are added a potential drawback with
numer system is increased poy when CPU
must access remote memory across the
system and reconnect creating and
possible performance penalty in other
words for example CPU canot access the
local memory of CPU 3 as quickly as it
can access its own local memory and
slowing down performance breaking system
can minimize thisa penalties through
careful CPU scheduling and memory
management
because NOA system can scale to
accommodate a large number of processors
they are become increasingly popular on
servers as well as high performance
Computing system finally blade servers a
system in which multiple processor
boards input output boards and
networking boards are placed in the same
chases and difference between this and
traditional multiprocessor system is
that each blade processor Bo boot into
independently and its own operating
system some blade server boards
multiprocessor as well which blurs the
line between type of
computers in a sense these servers
consist of multiple independent
multiprocessor
system another type of multiprocessor
system is clustered system which gathers
together multiple
CPUs cluster system are differ from
multiprocessor system describes in that
they are composed of two or more
individual system or not joined together
H not is typically a multicore system
such system are considered Loosely
coupled we should note that the
definition of clustered is not concrete
many commercial and open source package
rels to Define what cluster system is
and what why one form is better than
another the generally accepted
definition is that clustered Computer
Share storage and not closely link it
via local area network or faster
interconnects as Infinity band
clustering uh is usually used to provide
High availability service that is
nervous that will continue even if one
or more system in the cluster fail
generally we obtain High availability by
editing editing level redut dency in the
system a layer of cluster software runs
on the cluster notes H not can monitor
one on all the others if the monitor
machine HS the monitoring machine can
take ownership or storage and restart
the application that we running of valid
machine so the user and clients of
application see only brief interrupt of
service High availability provides
increased reliability which crucial in
many
application the ability to containing
providing service proportion to the
level of surviving hardw is called
graceful
degradation some system go beyond
graceful degradation and call it f
tolerant because it can suffer fure and
single component and still continue
operation H tolerance require mechanism
to all the fur to be dedicated
diagnose it and if the possible correct
it clasing can be structured
symmetrically or symmetrically and
asymmetrical clustering one machine is
hold to be stuned mode while the other
is running the
application the hot stability M machine
does nothing but monitor the active
server that server fails the h stand the
H becomes active server and metri
clustering two or more host are running
applicants and monitoring each other the
structure is obviously more efficient
and uses all of ability Hardware however
it does require that more than one
application can be available to run
since clust consist of several computer
system connect via Network cluster can
also be used to provide high performance
Computing environment such system can
supply significant greater comp uh
computational Power and Signal processor
or CMP system because they can run an
application uh concurrently in all
computers in the cluster the application
must have been written especially to
take advantage of the cluster however
this involves technique known as par
parallelization which device a program
to separate components that run in
parallel or individual cores in a
computer or computer scene cluster
typically this application are designed
to that one each component not in the
cluster has solved it portion of the
program the result from all these notes
are combined into Final Solution other
for cluster include parallel
um uh over white area network and
parallel class all all multiple host
access same data on shared storage
because most operating system lack
support to simulaneously data access by
multiple host parallel cluster usually
require use of special VAR software and
special release of application for
example Oracle real application clust
version of Oracle database it has been
designed to run parallel cluster each
machine runs Oracle and layer of
software tracks access to Shared disk
each machine has full access to all data
in database to provide shared access the
system must also Supply Access Control
and locking to ensure that the no
conflicting operation Ur this function
commonly known as distributed loog
manager it's included in some cluster
technology cluster technology is
changing rapidly some cluster production
support thousand on system and cluster
as well as cluster no separately by
Miles many of these Improvement are made
possible storage area
network this allows many to attach to
Pur storage if the application the data
are stored on sun the cluster software
can assign application to run on any
horse is attached to the sun if the host
fails then any other host can take over
in database cluster do no host can share
same database greatly increasing
performance relability
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