Major Research Methods
Summary
TLDRThis lecture series explores the methods sociologists use to set up research projects, ensuring reliability and accuracy without infringing on participants' rights. It delves into four primary research designs: surveys, observation, experiments, and existing sources. Surveys are highlighted for their cost-effectiveness and ability to gather sensitive data, while face-to-face interviews offer high response rates. Observations, often through participant observation, provide in-depth insights, albeit with ethical considerations. Experiments, though limited in replicating real-world settings, offer controlled variable manipulation. Existing sources, including secondary analysis and content analysis, allow for the use of pre-collective data, expanding the scope of sociological research.
Takeaways
- 🔍 Sociologists primarily use four research designs: surveys, observation, experiments, and existing sources to ensure reliability and accuracy in their research.
- 📊 Surveys are the most common method, with face-to-face interviews and questionnaires being the main techniques, offering benefits like quick turnaround and anonymity but also limitations such as low response rates for mailed surveys.
- 🤝 High response rates in face-to-face interviews are attributed to personal contact, but rapport development is crucial for credibility.
- 👀 Observant interviewers can gather non-verbal cues like body language and facial expressions for deeper understanding.
- 🔬 Experiments in sociology are limited due to their artificial settings and the difficulty in generalizing lab results to the general population.
- 👥 Participant observation involves joining a group to understand its operations, with debates on the value of covert versus overt methods.
- 📚 Ethnographies are in-depth, long-term studies of social settings, similar to cultural anthropology, and require building trust over time.
- 🔍 Experiments must be carefully conducted to avoid the Hawthorne effect, where subjects change their behavior because they know they are being observed.
- 📈 Secondary analysis uses pre-existing data, allowing for research without direct contact with subjects but limiting the ability to follow up on specific responses.
- 📚 Content analysis involves coding and analyzing texts or images to make inferences about societal roles and behaviors.
- 💻 Technological advancements have greatly expanded the capacity for data storage and analysis, facilitating more extensive sociological research.
Q & A
What are the primary research designs sociologists rely on?
-The primary research designs sociologists rely on are surveys, observation, experiments, and existing sources.
Why are surveys considered the 'big hitter' for sociologists?
-Surveys are considered the 'big hitter' because they are the most commonly used method. They are inexpensive, simple to administer, and can quickly gather basic information from a large group of people.
What are the two general ways in which surveys are conducted?
-Surveys are generally conducted either through interviews (over the phone or face-to-face) or through questionnaires, which are usually in a printed form.
What are some benefits of using surveys for sociological research?
-Benefits of surveys include low cost, ease of administration, quick turnaround, anonymity, and the ability to gather information on sensitive topics from a large group of people.
Why is it important for researchers to develop a good rapport with their subjects in face-to-face interviews?
-Developing a good rapport is crucial because it can significantly impact the credibility of the research and the quality of the responses. A poor rapport can undermine the research and lead to less reliable data.
What are some limitations of mailed questionnaires in surveys?
-Limitations of mailed questionnaires include a very low response rate, potential suspicion from respondents about the request for information, and the possibility of questions being unclear or complicated, leading to non-response or discarded questionnaires.
How can face-to-face interviews provide additional data beyond the verbal responses?
-Face-to-face interviews allow researchers to observe body language, facial expressions, and intonations, which can provide valuable insights and help interpret the person's verbal response.
What is participant observation and how is it used in sociological research?
-Participant observation is a method where researchers join a group to understand how it operates. It can be done covertly or overtly, and is often used in ethnographic studies, which take a long time to complete and focus on a higher social setting.
What are the potential dangers of covert participant observation research?
-Covert participant observation can be dangerous because if the researcher is discovered during the research, the group they are infiltrating may react negatively, potentially putting the researcher in harm's way.
What is the Hawthorne effect and why is it a concern in sociological experiments?
-The Hawthorne effect is the unintended influence of observers or experiments on the subjects, where subjects change their behavior because they know they are being watched. This can skew the results of experiments, making it difficult to generalize findings to the general population.
What are the two techniques used with existing sources in sociological research?
-The two techniques used with existing sources are secondary analysis, which involves using previously collected and publicly accessible data, and content analysis, which involves coding and analyzing content such as literature or images.
Outlines
📊 Sociological Research Methods and Surveys
This paragraph introduces the fundamental concepts of sociological research, emphasizing the importance of reliability and accuracy in research results and the need to respect the rights of research subjects. It outlines the four primary research designs used by sociologists: surveys, observation, experiments, and existing sources. Surveys are highlighted as the most commonly used method, with a focus on their benefits such as cost-effectiveness, simplicity, and quick results. The paragraph also discusses the different types of surveys, including face-to-face interviews and questionnaires, and their respective advantages and limitations. The importance of rapport in face-to-face interviews and the potential for collecting additional non-verbal data is noted, as well as the challenges of low response rates in mailed surveys and the issues of question clarity and respondent honesty.
🔍 Observation and Experimentation in Sociological Research
The second paragraph delves into the methods of observation and experimentation within sociological research. It explains that observation can be conducted covertly or overtly, with a focus on participant observation and the potential dangers associated with covert research. The paragraph also touches on the concept of ethnography, which involves long-term study of a social setting. Experiments are described as artificially created situations with manipulated variables, but their limited value for sociologists is noted due to their inability to replicate real-world social dynamics. The Hawthorne effect, which refers to the influence of being observed on subjects' behavior, is highlighted as a potential issue in experimental research. The paragraph concludes with a brief mention of the use of existing resources in sociological research, including secondary analysis and content analysis.
📚 Utilization of Existing Data and Technological Advancements
The final paragraph discusses the use of existing data sources in sociological research, such as secondary analysis and content analysis. Secondary analysis relies on previously collected data, which can be limited by the lack of direct contact with research subjects. Content analysis, on the other hand, involves coding and analyzing texts or images to draw conclusions about societal roles or behaviors. The paragraph also highlights the impact of technology on sociological research, with software packages enabling the storage and analysis of vast amounts of data. The potential for longitudinal studies and the availability of public data banks for research are mentioned, showcasing the expanded capabilities facilitated by technological advancements.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Sociologists
💡Research designs
💡Surveys
💡Interviews
💡Questionnaire
💡Confidentiality
💡Participant observation
💡Ethnography
💡Experiments
💡Hawthorne effect
💡Secondary analysis
💡Content analysis
💡Technology
Highlights
Sociologists use four primary research designs: surveys, observation, experiments, and existing sources.
Surveys are the most commonly used method in sociology, with benefits including cost-effectiveness and quick turnaround.
Surveys can be conducted through interviews or questionnaires, each with their advantages and limitations.
Anonymous surveys encourage respondents to answer sensitive questions honestly.
Face-to-face interviews have a high response rate and allow for the collection of non-verbal cues.
The rapport between researcher and subject is crucial for the credibility of survey responses.
In-depth interviews can provide detailed descriptions of personal experiences and social worlds.
Mailed surveys often have a low response rate due to public suspicion and disinterest.
Survey questions must be clear to avoid confusion and encourage participation.
People may provide opinions on topics they know little about, as demonstrated in fictitious surveys.
Income questions in surveys are often skipped or dishonestly answered, especially by wealthier respondents.
Observation involves direct participation or watching a group, which can be done covertly or overtly.
Ethnographies are in-depth, long-term studies of social settings, similar to cultural anthropology.
Debate exists over the value of covert versus overt participant observation in research.
Experiments in sociology are limited due to their artificial nature and difficulty in generalizing results.
The Hawthorne effect is a phenomenon where subjects change their behavior because they are being observed.
Secondary analysis uses previously collected data, but lacks direct contact with research subjects.
Content analysis involves coding and analyzing texts or images to make sociological assertions.
Technology has expanded the capacity for sociological research, with software enabling large-scale data storage and analysis.
Transcripts
throughout this lecture series bear in
mind that we're going to answer how
sociologists go about setting up
research projects how they ensure that
the results of their research are
reliable and accurate and whether or not
they can carry out their research
without violating the rights of those
they study now let's take a look at
Major research designs now you'll recall
from your science classes that a
research design is a detailed plan or
method for obtaining data
scientifically for a sociologist there
are four designs that we rely on
primarily and those are surveys
observation experiments and existing
sources there are others that we use but
these four are the primary sources let's
take a look first at surveys this is the
big hitter for sociologist this is the
one that we use the most and there are
generally two ways in which we conduct
surveys and one is the interview either
over the phone or face to face and then
the questionnaire and the questionnaire
is usually in a printed form now each
technique that a sociologist uses does
have benefits and limitations and we're
going to talk about a few of those here
some of the good things about surveys is
that they're usually inexpensive and
they're simple to administer and they do
have a very quick turn around a survey
is very helpful in finding out basic
information from a large group of people
in a very short period of time most of
the time the results of a survey are
Anonymous and respondents are generally
willing to answer questions on sensitive
topics such as income sexual behavior
and the use of drugs even if we're in a
face-to-face setting we rarely know the
research subject's name or any other
kind of identifying information and so
it is a confidential Anonymous process
face-to-face interviews have an
extremely high response rate up to about
99% and it's theorized that because that
type of situation involves person
personal contact with the researcher now
it's important for the researcher to be
able to develop a good rapport with the
research subjects so if for example uh
the researcher walks in with an attitude
or with a chip on her shoulder or
presents herself in a way that is not
flattering to the research subjects and
a rapport cannot be developed that can
seriously undermine The credibility of
the research and the answers that uh the
respondents give if we have the time to
do in-depth interviews or if that's
what's called for in our research we can
get a lot of detail about the social
world and very very good descriptions of
people's personal experience one of the
interesting things about face-to-face
interviews is that oftentimes the
researcher is collecting other data that
the research subject is not even aware
of so while we're asking a question and
we're recording the answer to the
question we're also looking at body
language facial expressions intonations
and all of that stuff can be very useful
in interpreting the person's verbal
response um if a respondent doesn't
understand a question we can clarify by
looking at their their facial expression
we can maybe say the question in a
different way being a good interviewer
is definitely a skill that has to be
honed it's not something that you learn
overnight and an observant interviewer
can gather lots of information on
variables uh you know you maybe have to
go into the respondent's home so you can
get a wealth of socioeconomic data that
way just by looking around and being
observant some of the limitations of
surveys particularly those that are
mailed questionnaires are that they have
a very low response rate people don't
tend to answer things VIA mail any
longer they're a little suspicious of
who's asking for the information and why
they want it our response rate in fact
for mailed surveys is at about 10%
um if the questions aren't clear or
complicated if you've written them in a
potentially offensive way respondents
can simply throw it away and not even
think about it again we also know
interestingly from Gathering data that
people will offer
opinions uh about things that they don't
know about for example we have done some
surveys where we've made up political
figures and fictitious legislation and
mailed it out and asked questions
questions about it and respondents have
responded to the questions and to the
fictitious politician as if they
actually exist and that these
respondents know something about the
issue something that also happens with
surveys is that people may skip or lie
about the questions that they feel are
too nosy for example in the census of
2000 53% of people who got the long form
which is not something that everybody
gets uh didn't answer the questions
about income and this is standard with
survey type questions income is
considered a sensitive topic
interestingly the Richer you are the
less liable you are to answer truthfully
the poorer you are the more likely you
are to answer truthfully so face-to-face
interviewing can be pretty expensive but
questionnaires and telephone surveys can
be cheap so there are benefits and
drawbacks to both one of the upcoming
techniques for surveys is internet and
there are some inherent problems with
using the internet and that is that not
everybody has access to the internet in
their home not everybody understands how
to use a computer so there are
significant demographic issues with who
we're capturing data from and whether or
not that's a good random sample of our
population so surveys capture either
quantitative or qualitative data if
they're capturing quantitative data it's
uh reporting primarily data that's in
its numerical form this is where often
times you'll hear information such as
99% of face-to-face interviews have high
response rates and less than 10% of the
people who are mailed questionnaires
respond to them they also capture
qualitative data the qualitative data
that is captured is usually what happens
in the field so it's not necessarily
about the question that you may be
asking the person but it's what's going
on in that particular setting that
becomes qualitative so let's say for
example you're doing a focus group on
couples and you have four or five
couples there that you're asking
questions to and as a researcher you can
see that one couple is very loving
towards each other they're holding hands
and they're smiling and they're making a
lot of eye contact and one couple is
sitting as though they're divided
they're not touching each other other
and they both have their arms crossed
across their chest and they're not
looking at each other at all you can
make some inferences about that
particularly if you're asking questions
about say for example satisfaction
within the relationship or uh whether or
not your spouse may have been cheating
on you so watching what's going on while
you're asking the questions in a
qualitative research project is
essential the second kind of method that
we use is observation and this is
collecting information through direct
participation or by watching a group or
community and this can be done covertly
or overtly we mostly do what we call
participant observation which is where
we join a group to get a sense of how it
operates and we do have some sociologist
who specialize in ethnography
ethnographies take a very long period of
time to complete and they talk about an
entire higher social setting and so
ethnographies uh are more similar to
anthropology or cultural anthropology
than are the other forms of social
research it's interesting we have some
very fascinating participant observation
studies out there and there's a debate
over the value of covert versus overt
participant observation research you
know if if you're covert then basically
you're going in and infiltrating a group
you're behaving as if you're one of them
and you're taking your notes on the sly
and no one knows that you're a
researcher and while you can get some
really really good information this can
be dangerous there are some situations
in social science research where
researchers have been put In Harm's Way
because they've been outed at a point
during their research and the group that
they were with really didn't take too
kindly to that
conversely with overt observation the
group knows that you're researching them
it can change the way they behave
ethnographies are a little bit less um
dangerous than that and in an
ethnography you generally do spend
enough time with the group that uh they
get to where they'll let their guard
down with you and by a lot of time I'm
talking some ethnographies take a few
years of observation
before you're even ready to start trying
to compile and gather the information
together to publish it okay the next
kind of method that we're going to talk
about is the experiment now this is an
artificially created situation that
allows the researcher to manipulate
variables and we almost always have here
an experimental group and a control
group
now experiments are of limited value to
sociologists they're interesting yes
some experiments in the recent past as
far as sociology is concerned are
fascinating we can look at the zimbardo
prison experiment we can look at the
mgrm shock experiment we can look at the
ash experiment on Conformity they have a
kind of
voyerism about them the problem with
experiments for sociologists is that
they don't
replicate the real natural setting of
the social world and so they're limited
value when we want to make
generalizations to the population yes we
can make some statements about what's
happened in the lab when we applied the
stimulus but it's it's a far way to
assert that that's the way that people
would also behave in the general
population so we you know while
experiments can can prove to be
beneficial we have to be careful with
the assertions we make with regard to
how far we can take those
and with experiments we have to be very
guarded against the Hawthorn effect this
is the unintended influence of observers
or experiments on the subjects this is
when a subject knows they're being
watched and their behavior change
changes because of it this comes from a
famous experiment that was done at the
Hawthorne Electric Plant uh several
researchers came in and said we're here
to observe your productivity for the
next several days and no matter what
stimulus was applied to the workers in
the plant productivity increased and
what we really found there was because
the subjects knew they were being
researched and wanted to please the
researchers their productivity increased
so it's something that we have to bear
in mind use of existing resources is
also a good way to do sociological
research and there are a couple of
different things we do here one of the
techniques we use is called secondary
analysis and this makes use of
previously collected and publicly
accessible information and data for
example example I may want to find
something out about the southern region
of states in America and so I could rely
on census data to find that out the
information's already been collected all
I have to do is go in and find the
variables and ask the question basically
problematic with secondary analysis is
that I don't have contact with the
research subjects and so if there's a
question that I might need to follow up
with or if I'm not exactly sure about
somebody's response I don't have contact
with that person and so it is of value
for some types of research but if you
have to get into depth with your
research questions then you might run
into some problems with secondary
analysis but we do now have in the
United States many very very good
longitudinal studies that have been
publicly funded where the data banks are
right online and available for anybody
to go in and use the the other Technique
we use here with existing sources is
what we call a Content analysis and a
Content analysis is where we might for
example take some literature and code
the words that are in that literature to
see how many times they come up and then
make some assertions about that or we
might for example take pictures there
was a famous content analysis done
several years back now of children's
books and when these researchers went in
and coded the pictures and the language
in children's books what they found was
the the characters that represented
males whether they were in little boy
form or animal form tended to have more
Authority in these books than the
characters that portrayed little girls
or girl animals uh they tended to be
more passive and so a statement could be
made then about the positions or the
roles of men and women in society or
little boys and little girls in society
technology really has extended our range
and capability to conduct research and
the software packages that we have now
enable us to store and analyze much
larger amounts of information than we
ever were able to do in the
past we'll talk again soon take care
bye-bye
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