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Summary

This lecture snippet explores U.S. foreign policy and European security issues in the 1920s, focusing on the Harding administration, European revisionist movements, and the rise of a politically active peace movement. Harding’s presidency is portrayed as largely symbolic, with key policies driven by Charles Evans Hughes and Herbert Hoover. Major initiatives include the Washington Naval Conference and associated treaties, which aimed to stabilize East Asia and promote disarmament. The session also examines post-World War I economic instability, the emergence of revisionist regimes in Italy and Hungary, hyperinflation in Germany, and early political threats from extremist movements, highlighting the complex interplay between diplomacy, economics, and rising authoritarianism.

Takeaways

• 🇩🇪 The German political landscape in the 1920s was dominated by center-left and center-right parties, including the Social Democrats and the Catholic Center Party (Zentrum).
• 📉 Pro-democratic parties in Germany steadily lost support during the 1920s, particularly the Democrats who supported the Versailles Treaty.
• ✊ Right-wing nationalist and extremist parties, such as the DNNVP and the early Nazi Party, initially held small but growing shares of the electorate.
• 🟡 Conservative populist parties, like the People’s Party, gained influence in the early 1920s and participated in coalition governments.
• ✌️ Peace activism surged after World War I, driven by the catastrophic human toll and widespread desire to prevent future conflicts.
• 👩 Women's political engagement increased in the 1920s, including gaining the right to vote in the U.S. and Great Britain, and influencing peace movements.
• 🌍 The Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) promoted anti-militarism and argued that peace was a women’s issue due to maternal responsibilities and male-led war failures.
• ⚖️ The 'Outlaw of War' movement, led by Salmon Levinson, proposed treating aggressive warfare as a crime to prevent future wars.
• 📝 The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 symbolically outlawed war, with nearly every country signing, but lacked enforceability, limiting its practical impact.
• 📜 The Kellogg-Briand Pact was later cited in the Nuremberg Trials as part of charges against Nazi leaders for engaging in war despite agreeing to the treaty.
• 🕊️ Overall, the 1920s in Europe and the U.S. saw fragile democracy in Germany, the emergence of extremist political forces, and idealistic but limited international peace efforts.

Q & A

What was the primary approach of the Harding administration towards foreign affairs in the 1920s?

The Harding administration was largely a figurehead presidency with key foreign policy initiatives driven by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes and Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover. The US did not join the League of Nations but engaged in global diplomacy through treaties and economic interventions, maintaining a Wilsonian approach without formal membership.

What were the main treaties resulting from the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–22, and what were their purposes?

The conference led to three main treaties: the Four-Power Treaty (US, Britain, France, Japan) established consultation in East Asian disputes; the Five-Power Treaty (US, Japan, Britain, France, Italy) promoted naval disarmament and reduced the US naval budget; and the Nine-Power Treaty expanded consultation to smaller powers in China, collectively aiming to stabilize East Asia and prevent conflict.

Who were considered 'revisionist' governments in Europe during the 1920s, and why?

Revisionist governments sought to overturn the post-World War I order established by the Treaty of Versailles. Key examples include Mussolini’s fascist Italy, Horthy’s Hungary, and various nationalist movements in Germany. They emerged due to political instability, economic hardship, and dissatisfaction with territorial and financial arrangements after the war.

How did the Dawes Plan of 1924 aim to stabilize Germany's economy?

The Dawes Plan involved US banks providing loans to Germany to revive its economy. Germany used part of the economic recovery to pay reparations to Britain and France, who then used the funds to repay US loans. This triangular flow temporarily stabilized Germany’s economy and European financial systems.

What were the causes and consequences of hyperinflation in Germany during the early 1920s?

Hyperinflation was caused by the German government printing large amounts of money to pay workers during the French and Belgian occupation of the Ruhr. Consequences included the currency becoming virtually worthless, workers carrying money in wheelbarrows, and severe economic instability that fueled political extremism.

How did Mussolini rise to power in Italy despite not initially having a parliamentary majority?

Amid post-war instability, the king invited Mussolini to form a government to prevent a communist takeover. Mussolini used his paramilitary Blackshirts to consolidate power, ultimately outlawing democratic institutions and establishing a fascist state.

What was the political landscape in Germany during the 1920s in terms of pro-democratic versus extremist parties?

Initially, pro-democratic parties like the Social Democrats, the Zentrum (Catholic Center), and the Democratic Party held roughly three-quarters of parliamentary seats. Over time, their influence declined, while extremist parties like the Nazis and communists remained small but gradually gained traction due to economic and political instability.

What role did the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) play in the 1920s?

WILPF was the largest and most effective peace organization of the 1920s, promoting anti-militarism, anti-imperialism, and the argument that peace was a women’s issue. Their activism influenced both US and European attitudes towards peace and helped shape international dialogue on conflict prevention.

What was the Kellogg-Briand Pact, and what were its limitations?

The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, led by US Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand, was a treaty in which signatory nations agreed to outlaw war. While nearly universal in signatories, the pact was unenforceable, and it ultimately failed to prevent World War II, although it was referenced in Nuremberg Trials to prosecute war crimes.

Why is it inaccurate to describe the 1920s US foreign policy as purely isolationist?

Although the US did not join the League of Nations, it actively engaged in international diplomacy through treaties like the Washington Naval Conference, economic interventions such as the Dawes Plan, and promotion of peace initiatives. This demonstrates a proactive, engaged foreign policy rather than true isolationism.

How did the Treaty of Versailles contribute to the rise of extremist movements in Europe?

The Treaty imposed harsh reparations, territorial losses, and political constraints on defeated nations, particularly Germany. Economic hardship, political instability, and national resentment created fertile ground for extremist movements such as fascism in Italy and the Nazi Party in Germany.