AP Psychology - Cognition - Part 1 - Thinking & Problems

Summary

This video introduces key concepts in cognition, focusing on how we think and solve problems. It explains how we group ideas through concepts and prototypes, and explores problem-solving strategies like algorithms, heuristics, and insight. The speaker highlights obstacles like confirmation bias, mental sets, and functional fixedness, which can hinder our thinking. The video also touches on mental shortcuts, such as representative and availability heuristics, and how framing and overconfidence affect decision-making. Overall, it provides an engaging look at the cognitive processes that shape our understanding of the world.

Takeaways

• 🧠 Concepts are mental groupings of similar items, like various types of chairs, helping us categorize and organize information.
• 🐦 A prototype is the best example of a category, such as a robin being more of a typical bird than a penguin.
• 🔢 Algorithms are step-by-step problem-solving methods that guarantee a correct answer if followed correctly.
• ⚡ Heuristics are mental shortcuts we use to make quick decisions and judgments without going through a lengthy process.
• 💡 Insight is the 'aha!' moment when the solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear.
• 🔍 Confirmation bias is when we seek information that supports our existing beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them.
• 🎯 Mental set refers to the tendency to approach problems in the same way based on past experiences, which can limit creative solutions.
• 🕯️ Functional fixedness is the inability to see an object being used for something other than its typical purpose, like using a matchbox as a candle holder.
• 📏 The representative heuristic is when we judge something based on how well it fits our mental image or stereotype of a category.
• 📚 The availability heuristic is when we make decisions based on the information that comes easily to mind, often leading to biased judgments.

Q & A

What are concepts, and how do they help us think?

Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. They help us organize information by categorizing items in our brain, such as the concept of a 'chair,' which includes various types of chairs like armchairs, stools, or rocking chairs.

What is a prototype in the context of cognitive psychology?

A prototype is the best example or most typical representation of a concept. For example, when thinking of a bird, most people visualize a robin, which is more prototypical of a bird than a penguin, even though both are birds.

What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic?

An algorithm is a step-by-step, methodical procedure that guarantees a correct solution if followed properly. A heuristic, on the other hand, is a mental shortcut that allows for faster problem-solving, though it does not always guarantee the correct solution.

What is insight, and how does it differ from algorithmic problem-solving?

Insight is the sudden realization or 'aha' moment when the solution to a problem becomes clear. Unlike algorithmic problem-solving, which is systematic and gradual, insight occurs spontaneously, often after struggling with a problem.

What is confirmation bias, and how does it affect problem-solving?

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs. It can hinder problem-solving by causing individuals to focus only on evidence that supports their views, while ignoring contradictory information.

What are mental sets and how do they influence our ability to solve problems?

A mental set is a tendency to approach problems in a certain way based on past experiences. It can limit creativity and flexibility in problem-solving, as it makes individuals stuck in their usual thinking patterns, which may not apply to new situations.

What is functional fixedness, and how does it limit problem-solving?

Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects only in terms of their typical use. It prevents individuals from thinking creatively about how an object can be used in novel ways, which can limit problem-solving abilities.

What is the representative heuristic, and how can it lead to errors in judgment?

The representative heuristic is a mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype. It can lead to errors in judgment by ignoring base rates or statistical probabilities, focusing instead on stereotypes or mental images.

How does the availability heuristic influence decision-making?

The availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions based on how easily examples come to mind. If an event or example is more memorable or recent, people may overestimate its likelihood, even if it's statistically rare.

How does framing affect decision-making?

Framing refers to how information is presented. The way a choice or situation is framed can significantly influence decision-making. For instance, people are more likely to choose a treatment with a '95% success rate' than one that 'kills 5 out of 100 people,' even though both present the same statistics.

Outlines

00:00

🧠 Concepts and Prototypes

This paragraph introduces the idea of concepts, which are mental groupings of similar items, such as chairs, to simplify how we think about the world. It also explains prototypes, which are the best example of a category (e.g., a robin as a typical bird). The concept of prototypes helps us judge new information against our mental 'best examples,' influencing how we think about categories like professors, jocks, or birds.

05:01

💡 Problem Solving Strategies: Algorithms and Heuristics

This section discusses two problem-solving strategies: algorithms and heuristics. An algorithm is a step-by-step process that guarantees the correct answer, much like a computer would follow logical steps to solve a puzzle. In contrast, heuristics are mental shortcuts that help humans make quicker decisions but aren't always foolproof. Insight is also highlighted as a sudden 'aha' moment that helps solve problems, commonly seen in detective shows or courtroom dramas.

10:02

🔍 Cognitive Biases in Problem Solving

The paragraph explores obstacles in problem-solving like confirmation bias, where we seek information that supports pre-existing beliefs. It also introduces fixation, particularly mental and perceptual sets, which limit our thinking by narrowing the range of possibilities we consider. The example of the 'candle and matchbox problem' illustrates how functional fixedness can hinder creative problem-solving.

Keywords

💡Concepts

Concepts are mental groupings or categories that we use to organize information. In the video, the speaker explains that concepts allow us to classify objects or ideas, such as different types of chairs, into a single group. Concepts help simplify our thinking by grouping similar items together, which is essential for cognition and problem-solving.

💡Prototype

A prototype is the best or most typical example of a concept. In the context of birds, for instance, a robin might be the prototype that comes to mind when thinking about birds, even though other birds, like penguins, are also valid examples. Prototypes are crucial in how we categorize and make judgments based on concepts.

💡Algorithm

An algorithm is a step-by-step method or procedure for solving a problem, guaranteed to produce the correct answer if followed correctly. In the video, algorithms are compared to computer processes that go through every possible solution to rearrange letters and form words. Algorithms are thorough but time-consuming, representing one cognitive strategy in problem-solving.

💡Heuristic

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow us to solve problems more quickly by simplifying complex processes. While not always accurate, heuristics save time and cognitive effort. The video explains that humans often use heuristics instead of algorithms, especially when immediate, satisfactory solutions are needed.

💡Insight

Insight is the sudden realization of a solution to a problem, often described as an 'aha moment.' In the video, insight is compared to the moments in detective shows when the character suddenly figures something out after struggling with a problem. Insight contrasts with step-by-step problem-solving, as it occurs spontaneously.

💡Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias refers to the tendency to search for and favor information that supports one's pre-existing beliefs or ideas. The video uses political and religious examples to explain how confirmation bias can be an obstacle to problem-solving, as it leads people to ignore evidence that contradicts their views.

💡Mental Set

A mental set is a fixed way of thinking about a problem or situation, based on previous experiences. In the video, the speaker explains how mental sets can hinder problem-solving, as people may be unable to think beyond their usual methods. The example of assuming a miner is male is used to demonstrate how mental sets shape our expectations.

💡Functional Fixedness

Functional fixedness is the tendency to see objects only for their typical use, which can limit creativity in problem-solving. The video references the candle-box problem, where participants struggle to see the box holding tacks as a potential candle holder, illustrating how functional fixedness restricts alternative uses for objects.

💡Representative Heuristic

The representative heuristic is a mental shortcut where people categorize something based on how similar it is to their mental prototype of a category. For example, the video asks whether a skinny person with glasses is more likely to be a truck driver or a professor. Although statistically more truck drivers fit this description, the prototype of a professor might lead to incorrect assumptions.

💡Availability Heuristic

The availability heuristic involves making decisions or judgments based on readily available information in one’s memory. In the video, the example of associating Middle Eastern individuals with terrorism is given, as people may rely on the most memorable or recent examples (e.g., 9/11) to make inaccurate generalizations.

💡Framing

Framing refers to how information is presented and how it affects decision-making. The video discusses how presenting a drug as having a 95% success rate versus a 5% failure rate can influence people's perception of its safety, despite both being statistically the same. Framing plays a significant role in shaping judgments and choices.

Highlights

Concepts are mental groupings of similar objects, people, or ideas, such as different types of chairs.

A prototype is the best example of a category, like a robin for birds, which we compare other items against.

Algorithms are step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution but are often time-consuming.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow quicker problem-solving but are less accurate than algorithms.

Insight involves an 'aha' moment where a solution to a problem becomes clear spontaneously.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out information that supports our existing beliefs.

A mental set is when we approach problems in a specific way based on previous experiences, which can limit creativity.

Functional fixedness refers to the tendency to see objects only in their typical function, like not using a matchbox as a candleholder.

The representative heuristic involves making judgments based on how well something matches a stereotype or prototype.

The availability heuristic involves making decisions based on information that is most easily recalled, which may not always be accurate.

Overconfidence is a cognitive bias where individuals tend to overestimate their own knowledge and abilities.

Framing can significantly affect decision-making by changing how information is presented, such as emphasizing success rates vs. failure rates.

Mental strategies like heuristics allow us to conserve mental energy, but can also lead to errors in judgment.

Problem-solving can be hindered by biases such as fixation, where we are stuck in specific ways of thinking.

Examples like the Iraq War show how confirmation bias can affect real-world decision-making, focusing on evidence that supports preexisting beliefs.

Transcripts

[Music]

hello welcome to part one of cognition

uh we'll be talking about thinking and

problem solving here we go so first of

all we're talking about how we think we

have these things called

Concepts concepts are how we group

certain C things that we have in our

head so for instance I have here a

picture of

chairs um when we think of chairs all we

have this like file cabinet that we open

up in our brains and we've got all these

different types and sizes and colors and

types of chairs that we think so like we

got the chair like that you'll have at

your dinner table you have like an arm

chair rocking chair a stools a chair a

wheelchair uh a chair that you have out

in your deck etc etc you know a bench is

a chair and so a concept is just a group

right the key here is a

group of like items

okay now kind of breaking that down a

little bit further is thing called

prototype a prototype is our best

example of that type of whatever we're

talking about so for instance for Birds

when you think if I say what what do you

think of when you think of a bird

probably what comes to your mind is

something looks a little bit more like

this right looks like a robin a little

bit more likee um a penguin's probably

not the first thing that came to your

mind well you know that a penguin fits

the title of a bird it's got two feet

it's got some wings here but it's but

it's not the best example of a bird like

a robin's like birdier than a penguin is

if you will and it helps you uh see that

so that's a prototype's your

best

example all right and we use we judge

everything against a prototype um so

what's our prototype of what a professor

looks like in college what's a prototype

of what a a jock is in school you know

what what is when we think of these

things what does it look like right and

then a lot of times it plays tricks in

our minds if something doesn't match

that

prototype now as you're thinking we have

different strategies that you use now an

algorithm is step by step process step

by

step and you are

guaranteed the right

answer if you stick with it

so algorithm is guaranteed step by step

so if I ask you like solve or rearrange

a certain set of letters to make a word

if you said okay so if we had like a c d

e a i don't know I'm just making stuff

up here PS I don't know if that makes a

word throw a t in there and throw R back

here okay if we rearrange this to make

some words say okay I'm going to put R

first I'm going put a second second then

we're going to put C and know then we're

going to rearrange these and I put R

first a second C and then I start with E

this time start with D this time but R

first a second c3d I'm going to put a

third this time we're just going to keep

trying them all out until we get all

these and you know add add add add the

rest of the letters here but we keep

trying them all until we figure it out

all right so step by step you're

guaranteed the right this is algorithm

is what a computer uses it goes step by

step to figure something out a heuristic

is a

mental shortcut we as humans use uh

heuristics all the time I'm talk about a

couple of heuristics in the next slide

here but fistic are mental shortcuts um

they allow us to

um to not have to go through the

step-by-step process allow us to kind

of take in and make judgments about the

world around us much more quickly

because if we had to go through

everything

algorithmically then we wouldn't have

time to do a whole lot of stuff because

all of our mental power because we know

that our brain right is INF is finitely

capable of of its Consciousness or its

memory and we need to can only use

certain amount at a time and so if we

devote that to something then we can't

devote it to something else right so a

heuristic allows us to save time okay so

it's a mental shortcut so for instance

um if I asked you um what those letters

represented you might not put like a an

R r or an e followed by I don't know if

I had a y in there you might not put an

e followed by a y very often because you

never see an e followed by Y in real

life or a y followed by a z or something

like that something that you wouldn't

see you say I know I'm never going to

see this I'm not even going to try it

and that would be a heris Insight is

kind of like that

aha moment so maybe you're trying to

answer that problem with the rearranging

the letters you try doing a step by step

first of all you probably try to do a

shortcut and that doesn't work then you

try to do then you try to do it step by

step and that's not working then

sometime you go oh that's it and you

have this aha moment so insight's kind

of this just this aha moment that we

have when we're trying to solve a

problem um when you watch like detective

shows or Sherlock Holmes or like a

lawyer Show often you'll see the main

character just go I've got it and you

know they'll walk away and then all the

people in the room are left like what he

got and they follow him to the next room

that's that a that's called Insight

right that just happens like

spontaneously and all of a sudden it's

kind of this cool magical moment where

everything just comes together in our

head and we just get it it's called

Insight um okay so now some obstacles to

problem solving first thing we have here

is confirmation bias we've talked about

this before but confirmation bias is

where we tend to look for information

that supports an idea that we already

have so for instance um if I'm looking

uh we do this a lot with politics right

um you have a political idea and whether

you like or dislike the president you

tend to see things that support your

like or support your dislike of the

president and you ignore things that

might go against that might say oh you

know what he's not such a bad idea or

you know what he's not such or he's not

as good as I thought he was we tend to

just focus on the things that support us

uh often times with religion same thing

things that we're passionate about a lot

of times we use confirmation bias so

this is a problem with problem

solving um fixation there's two types

fixation is when we're um not able

to um not able to look at something

completely or all around we're fixated

with certain events so type of fixation

is called a mental

set um a perceptual set which we had

back in sensation perception perceptual

set is how we perceive the world around

us a mental set is how we think about

the world around us so we have this

mental set so if I see if you know uh if

I think that girls can only do a certain

job right if I if I perceive that a girl

can't do a particular job I say just you

know as an example a girl is not going

to I I think that a girl can't be a a

minor right I'm mining for coal okay so

my my percept my mental set is when I

say okay tell me about what a minor

looks like or what would you say is this

minor in this next room probably what's

not going to come into your mind is a

girl because your mental set your way of

thinking about that particular idea does

not include a girl even though a girl is

perfectly capable of mining can do it

just the same we don't think of it our

mental set doesn't allow us to think of

that and that hurts us sometimes when

we're trying to solve problems uh

likewise an idea called functional

fixedness this is where we tend to only

look at something uh for what we

commonly see it used for so for instance

this is a very common uh example that

you've probably had in class um it's

called a candle Matchbox problem I think

it's what it's usually referred to as

and says you get these uh supplies how

can you make that candle stick on the

wall and uh and light it right and so we

see this candle we see this tax and you

know everybody's scratching their head I

don't know how to do it uh of course the

correct answer is right you take the tax

out of the box you tack the you know the

Box uh up to the wall you put the candle

you sit inside the box and then you

light it right and so we have to kind of

think outside the box for that as it

were you know no pun intended but before

we got to that idea we probably had

functional fix in this because we never

thought of this box that held the tax as

a holder for the candle and so we had

this functional fix

inness

um so yeah there you go another example

of like confirmation bias would be like

uh in Iraq they had the weapons of mass

destruction U that's why we went and

invaded Iraq and so all these things you

know even after it was proven that it

wasn't true that they didn't have

weapons of mass destruction or we

couldn't find any El least we kept

looking for reasons to uh that oh they

could have had it they could have had it

um okay finally um here's some more

fistic that I promised first of all we

have a what's called a representative

heuristic heuristics are mental

shortcuts um representative heuristic is

how well does this represent my

basically how well does it represent

something that kind of like your mental

how was just represent what I already

know about um so we takes these

shortcuts so if I asked you for

instance

um if I asked you what which is more

likely to be who who's who has more uh

short people that have a mustache and

glasses and are very thin I asked you is

it going to be more of a truck driver or

more of a college professor and you

would probably say probably the college

professor right because we have this

picture this mental set of our image of

this truck D these big Burly guys

probably right and so uh what comes in

our head a representative teristic was

we represent We compare it against

something that we already know and we

take that shortcut we okay that if I

really ask you know we break this thing

down how many truck drivers are there in

the world probably or in the United

States you know we've got uh tens of

thousands of them right how many uh

College professors much less than that

right we have more truck drivers than we

have college professors especially maybe

if I even made a professor of like Latin

or something like that and um in reality

right even if it was like one in 10 of

the truck drivers there would still be

way more truck drivers that would be

short and skinny with glasses and

mustache than um professors because

there's just more of them right but we

don't send to think that way because we

just compare it against our preconceived

ideas additionally would be the

availability

heris availability heris

is we take these shortcuts of just

information that we're that we know

about that we have available to us so

maybe you've never seen something or you

don't uh you don't know something very

well we use availability heretic a lot

uh this kind of happens with culturally

right if we see like the terrorist

attacks right so the terrorist attacks

we saw um people from the Middle East

attack the Twin Towers right terrorist

attack and maybe we people who don't

have a lot of contact with people from

the Middle East um tend to look at those

anybody who's from the Middle East as a

potential

terrorist um even though because our

only contact our only reference is that

time that we've seen that they were a

terrorist right even though there's

millions and millions and millions of

people from the Middle East who are not

terrorists and so we you might have this

availability heretic can only compare it

against something that you know that's

the only that's the only example that

you have available to you so

availability heuristic last two things

overconfidence we've talked about this

before we tend to be overconfident about

uh our decisions all the time we are

extremely overconfident

um we something called there's a an idea

called the better than average effect we

all think that we're better than average

right well no we can't all be better

than average right that would defeat the

definition of the word average but we

tend to think that way we have this

overconfidence with her and that's a as

a problem we're forming judgments and um

decisions and finally this idea of

framing how we frame something can

affect our decisions big time when we

talk about social Psych ology and

persuasion this comes in the Big T I

mean look at this I actually you look at

this you think oh man this guy's getting

the crap beat out of him this is not

fair this is a horrible image of the

United States soldiers if I just showed

you this one you would think oh look

we're you know we're compassionate we

love each other you know then I give you

the real whole

picture and you see oh well this is a

little bit more um uh complicated than

one or the other so how we framed the

picture can determine how we feel about

it another example of framing would be

um

if I told you that a drug has a 95 90

let's say 95% success rate of of working

but it has a 5% okay it has a 5% 95%

success rat of working if not you're

going to die right or if I told you this

is going to kill five out of 100 people

right if I told you it's going to kill

five out of

100 most people are going to be a lot

more um hesitant to take that drug than

if I said it had a 95% success rate

they're both the same information it's

just how I framed it was different how I

present it how it's presented to you is

kind of How It's framed all right so

that's uh the first part of cognition

and we'll see you next time