Expansion and Consequences: Crash Course European History #5

Summary

This episode of Crash Course European History explores the far-reaching effects of European expansion during the 16th century, including the devastation inflicted on indigenous populations through war, forced labor, and disease. The episode discusses the role of figures like Hernán Cortés and Bartolomé de Las Casas, the economic impact of silver and sugar production, and the beginnings of transatlantic slavery. It also covers the Columbian Exchange, which introduced new foods and animals to both Europe and the Americas, shaping modern global trade and culture. The episode ends by reflecting on the historical roots of modern inequality and globalization.

Takeaways

• 🌍 European expansion profoundly reshaped global societies, introducing new plants, animals, and human interactions on a massive scale.
• ⚔️ Iberian expansion, particularly by the Spanish, resulted in widespread destruction, including the death of millions of Native Americans due to violence and diseases like smallpox.
• 💰 The Spanish Empire became immensely wealthy from silver, gold, and resources extracted from the Americas, greatly boosting Spain's economy.
• 📜 Indigenous political structures were often exploited by the Spanish to maintain order and control, though the Spanish lacked experience in large-scale imperial management.
• 🙏 Bartolomé de Las Casas, a Spanish missionary, advocated for the rights of indigenous people and criticized the brutality of conquest, becoming an early voice for human rights.
• ⛪ Christianity had a significant influence on the Americas, but indigenous beliefs blended with Catholic practices, as seen in the story of Our Lady of Guadalupe.
• 🏴‍☠️ European powers, like the English, joined in piracy to capture Spanish wealth, with figures like Francis Drake playing major roles in seizing treasures.
• 🛠️ European colonization relied heavily on forced labor, including indigenous people and later African slaves, to sustain industries such as mining and sugar production.
• 📦 The Columbian Exchange dramatically transformed global diets, introducing new foods like potatoes, tomatoes, and maize to Europe, while Afroeurasian crops like bananas entered the Americas.
• 🍫 Luxury goods like sugar, chocolate, and tobacco became highly desirable in Europe, sparking long-term economic and cultural changes, as well as deepening global inequality.

Q & A

What was the impact of Iberian expansion on indigenous populations in the Americas?

Iberian expansion caused widespread destruction, including massacres, forced labor, and the spread of diseases like smallpox and measles, which led to the deaths of millions of indigenous people. In some areas, the native population declined by as much as 90%.

How did European colonizers use pre-existing systems to control the Americas?

The Spanish colonizers used pre-existing political structures, such as Incan roads and communication networks, to facilitate their rule. These systems helped maintain order and collect taxes, allowing the Spanish to dominate the region more effectively.

What role did diseases play in the European colonization of the Americas?

Diseases such as smallpox and measles, which were brought by Europeans, devastated indigenous populations. Native Americans had no immunity to these diseases, leading to massive death tolls and weakening their ability to resist colonization.

Who was Bartolomé de Las Casas, and what was his role in advocating for indigenous rights?

Bartolomé de Las Casas was a Catholic missionary who initially participated in the conquest of Cuba but later became an advocate for indigenous rights. He condemned the brutality of the Spanish conquerors and fought for the humane treatment of native peoples, contributing to the early ideas of human rights.

What were the economic rewards of empire for the Spanish during the 16th century?

The Spanish empire grew extraordinarily wealthy through the seizure of precious metals, art, and religious objects. By the mid-16th century, silver and gold were pouring into Spain, transforming it from a poor kingdom into a very wealthy one.

How did the Columbian Exchange change diets and agriculture in Europe and the Americas?

The Columbian Exchange introduced new crops such as potatoes, maize, tomatoes, and pumpkins to Europe, which increased food security and population growth. In return, Afroeurasian crops like bananas and cassava were brought to the Americas. The exchange of plants, animals, and farming techniques transformed global agriculture.

What was the significance of Our Lady of Guadalupe in the context of colonization?

Our Lady of Guadalupe, a brown-skinned depiction of the Virgin Mary, became a symbol of the blending of Catholicism and indigenous beliefs in the Americas. Her image, said to have appeared to Juan Diego in 1531, became a powerful religious figure for indigenous and mestizo communities, representing a fusion of spiritual traditions.

What was the role of European powers like England and the Netherlands in global trade during the 16th and 17th centuries?

England and the Netherlands followed the lead of Spain and Portugal by establishing trading companies, such as the English East India Company and the Dutch United East India Company. These companies facilitated global exploration, trade, and settlement, often through violent means like piracy and colonization.

How did the transatlantic slave trade develop, and why was it important to European colonization efforts?

The transatlantic slave trade developed as European colonizers sought labor for plantations, particularly after indigenous populations were decimated by disease. Africans were captured and sold into slavery, providing the labor needed to sustain industries like sugar production. This became a massive business that fueled European wealth and colonization efforts.

What was the 'Black Legend,' and how did it shape views of the Spanish colonization of the Americas?

The 'Black Legend' was a narrative promoted by other European powers, especially the English, that portrayed the Spanish as uniquely brutal colonizers. While the Spanish did commit atrocities, the 'Black Legend' ignored similar actions by other European colonizers and was used as propaganda to justify their own colonial ambitions.

Outlines

00:00

🌍 European Expansion and Its Global Consequences

John Green introduces the concept of European expansion and its immense impact on the world. He highlights the collision of different worlds, noting how European explorers discovered lands and people previously unknown to them, resulting in devastation and opportunity. This period reshaped global dynamics, especially in terms of power and resources, as new worlds collided with existing ones. Green sets the stage for exploring the consequences of this expansion from multiple perspectives.

05:02

💀 Destruction and Disease in the Americas

The destruction caused by Iberian expansion was enormous. Hernan Cortes's conquests were marked by the horrific slaughter of native populations. In addition to warfare, diseases like smallpox and measles, brought by Europeans, decimated native populations, with some regions losing up to 90%. Despite this devastation, the Spanish Empire in the Americas incorporated existing political structures, such as the Incan roads, to maintain control, but they struggled with the logistics of empire-building.

10:02

💰 The Astonishing Riches of Empire

The Spanish Empire reaped immense wealth from the Americas, especially through the extraction of silver and gold, which turned Spain into one of the richest kingdoms. Native know-how, like the use of liquid mercury to process precious metals, enabled the Spanish to extract resources at an astonishing rate. The Portuguese also profited from sugar and Brazilwood trade in Brazil, relying heavily on forced labor. Critics like Bartolomé Las Casas emerged, who condemned the brutal treatment of indigenous people, helping to initiate early human rights discussions.

15:06

⛪ Christianity's Transformative Role in the Americas

Christianity, brought by colonizers, deeply affected indigenous cultures in the Americas. While the Church demanded conversion, indigenous people often blended their beliefs with Catholicism. The story of Juan Diego's visions of the Virgin Mary, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe, highlights this syncretism. She became a symbol of motherhood and devotion, especially among women, and remains one of the most revered figures in the Americas. At the same time, European powers, like the English, were seeking to capture Spanish wealth through piracy, contributing to the global power struggles of the time.

⚔️ European Rivalries and the Emergence of Global Corporations

As other European powers imitated Spanish and Portuguese success, corporations like the English and Dutch East India Companies emerged, spearheading global exploration, trade, and settlement. These entities raised armies and enslaved people to sustain their enterprises. The Atlantic slave trade expanded as European colonizers, particularly the British, began importing African slaves to replace devastated indigenous populations. Enslaved Africans became crucial to the growing economies in sugar and other industries.

🌾 The Columbian Exchange: Transforming Worlds

The Columbian Exchange reshaped global food, agriculture, and ecology. New World crops like pumpkins, maize, and potatoes revolutionized diets in Europe, while Afroeurasian species, including horses and sheep, changed landscapes in the Americas. The exchange wasn’t limited to plants and animals; European diseases ravaged native populations. Sugar became a prized luxury, while chocolate and coffee transitioned from ceremonial drinks to everyday pleasures. Over time, the English and other European nations established colonies, intensifying global competition and exploitation.

🌐 The Beginnings of Globalization

The era of European exploration and expansion marked the beginning of the true globalization that shapes today's world. Goods, wealth, and labor extracted from colonies built empires, while indigenous populations saw the fruits of their work taken overseas. Despite the material abundance we experience today, profound inequality and injustice remain, rooted in the colonial history of exploitation. John Green concludes by reminding us that while we are products of history, we are also actively creating it.

Keywords

💡European Expansion

European expansion refers to the period during which European powers, particularly Spain and Portugal, explored and colonized vast territories in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. The video discusses how this expansion led to both immense wealth for European nations and devastating consequences for indigenous populations, such as the spread of disease and the imposition of new political and social structures.

💡Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the New World and the Old World following European colonization. This exchange had a profound impact on global history, introducing crops like potatoes and maize to Europe, and European animals and diseases to the Americas, with devastating effects on indigenous populations.

💡Encomienda

Encomienda was a system established by the Spanish government in the Americas, where soldiers and colonizers were granted the right to the labor of local indigenous people. It played a central role in the exploitation of native populations, particularly in mining and agriculture, which led to significant criticism, most notably from Bartolomé de Las Casas.

💡Smallpox

Smallpox, a disease brought to the Americas by European colonizers, had a catastrophic effect on indigenous populations. The video highlights how smallpox, along with other diseases like measles, decimated native communities, contributing to a population decline of up to 90% in some areas.

💡Bartolomé de Las Casas

Bartolomé de Las Casas was a Spanish missionary and historian who initially participated in the colonization of the Americas but later became a fierce critic of the mistreatment of indigenous people. His advocacy for the rights of native populations is presented in the video as one of the earliest efforts toward what we now call human rights.

💡Black Legend

The 'Black Legend' is a narrative that portrays the Spanish colonizers as uniquely brutal and oppressive, particularly compared to other European powers. The video critiques this legend, suggesting that English and other European colonizers were equally violent and exploitative, despite their claims of moral superiority.

💡Our Lady of Guadalupe

Our Lady of Guadalupe refers to the Virgin Mary as she appeared in a vision to the Aztec Juan Diego in 1531. The video explains how this version of Mary, depicted with Aztec symbols and brown skin, became a powerful symbol of the blending of indigenous beliefs with Catholicism, illustrating the cultural changes that colonization brought to the Americas.

💡Iberian Expansion

Iberian expansion refers to the colonization efforts of Spain and Portugal in the 16th century. The video discusses the far-reaching effects of this expansion, including the exploitation of indigenous peoples, the establishment of vast empires, and the extraction of immense wealth, particularly through mining and agriculture.

💡Transatlantic Slave Trade

The transatlantic slave trade was the forced transportation of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations and in mines. The video outlines how the labor of enslaved people, especially in sugar production, became essential to European economies after the decimation of native populations through disease and warfare.

💡Christianity and Colonization

Christianity played a key role in the colonization of the Americas, as European powers sought to convert indigenous peoples to Catholicism. The video describes how this religious imposition often blended with local beliefs, as seen in the example of Our Lady of Guadalupe, and how the church's influence shaped colonial society.

Highlights

European expansion brought vast devastation and opportunity, transforming the world on a massive scale.

Hernan Cortes remarked on the brutality of European conquest, describing how the bodies of Native Americans were everywhere.

European diseases, like smallpox and measles, decimated the Native American population, reducing it by up to 90%.

Spanish colonizers used pre-existing Incan infrastructure to maintain control and order in the Americas.

The Spanish empire's wealth surged due to the exploitation of Native American labor in mining operations for silver and gold.

Bartolomé de Las Casas campaigned against the brutal treatment of Native Americans and is considered an early advocate for human rights.

The spread of Christianity in the Americas often involved the blending of indigenous beliefs with Catholicism, exemplified by the story of Our Lady of Guadalupe.

English and other European powers sought to capture Spanish wealth through piracy, with figures like Francis Drake seizing enormous fortunes.

By the 17th century, European states had established powerful trading companies, such as the East India Company, which controlled land, labor, and trade.

The Atlantic slave trade became a massive industry, with millions of Africans being enslaved and transported to work on plantations.

The Columbian Exchange dramatically altered global diets, introducing New World crops like potatoes and maize to Europe, increasing food supply and population growth.

European colonization brought significant ecological change to the Americas, with the introduction of new animals like horses, sheep, and pigs.

Deforestation for sugar production became widespread, leading to environmental degradation in the Americas.

The influx of luxury goods such as sugar, chocolate, tea, and coffee transformed European societies and their daily consumption habits.

The English promoted the 'Black Legend,' depicting the Spanish as particularly cruel colonizers, although English settlers were also violent and exploitative.

Transcripts

Hi I’m John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So today we’re going to continue looking at European expansion and its impact on the

world’s humans.

Like, imagine learning that there are people in places you did not know existed, that they

eat foods you’ve never seen, that their world contains plant and animal species entirely

different from your world.

What people thought was one world turned out to be two, and the collision of those worlds

wrought devastation and opportunity on a truly mind-boggling scale.

And today, we’re going to ask you to look at the consequences of European expansion,

and consider how those consequences change depending on where you find yourself.

INTRO Destruction from Iberian expansion was truly

extraordinary across the sixteenth century.

As Hernan Cortes commented: “We could not walk without treading on the bodies and heads

of dead Indians.”[i] Besides the slaughter of empire-building directly

inflicted by the invaders and their local allies, the ongoing progress of smallpox,

and measles, and other diseases that Europeans brought to the Americas completely overwhelmed

the healthcare systems of native Americans.

Many millions died.

Within a century, the population of native Americans had fallen perhaps by as much as

90%.

Throughout the Spanish Empire in the Americas the colonizers made use of existing political

structures that were already in place for collecting taxes and otherwise maintaining

order.

Even as the Spanish king appointed elite men from Spain as viceroys enforcing civil and

military rule over what had been the Incan Empire for instance, the Incan systems of

roads and communication networks facilitated Spanish domination.

It’s also important to remember that because the Spanish had never before experienced almost

three- thousand-mile-long imperial operation, like the one the Incans had, the Spanish had

very little understanding of how to maintain its functions or to provide for its upkeep.

Much as the Spanish empire initially depended on brute force, sustaining it required practical

interactions with conquered people and in many cases their cooperation.

The rewards of empire for the Spanish were truly astonishing.

Thanks to the seizure of art and religious objects made with precious metals, the discovery

of mines, and the know-how of native Americans and others in running those mines, by the

mid-sixteenth century silver and gold were pouring into Spain.

And what had been a very poor kingdom became a very very rich one.

Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

It’s now believed that pre-Columbian peoples knew how to use liquid mercury to process

silver and gold--a method that’s still used today.

It was also used by the Spanish and by the end of the century the Portuguese

had discovered precious metals in Brazil, too.

The Portuguese cut down trees in Brazillian forests to trade in Brazilwood.

And sugar production flourished across the Caribbean beginning in Jamaica in 1515 and

eventually spreading across tropical and forested regions of the New World where the vast tracts

of trees could be felled to feed the fires needed for sugar refining.To launch and sustain

all these enterprises—mining, metallurgy, sugar refining, lumbering—Iberians initially

used the forced labor and know-how of local peoples, as I mentioned earlier.

The Spanish government awarded its soldiers and adventurers encomienda, that is the labor

of local people on a large plot of land.

But there were critics of this system among Europeans, perhaps most notably Bartolomé

Las Casas, a Catholic missionary who had helped in the savage conquest of Cuba and who had

received an encomienda for his participation.

But then the preaching of a Dominican friar made him see conquest in a different light

and he began a campaign on behalf of local people.

Las Casas, while underscoring the benefits of conversion to Christianity, lambasted his

fellow conquerors for their murder, brutality, and pillage.

He wrote of native Americans, “To subject them first by warlike means is a form and

procedure contrary to the law … and gentleness of Jesus Christ.”

Las Casas wrote much more and lobbied the Spanish court (some would say he harassed

it), beginning in some historians’ minds the drive for what are considered today human

rights.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

Las Casas’ story is a reminder that the cause of human rights always needs people

who have them in order to press it forward.

But ultimately the people who are responsible for expansions in human rights are the people

who are denied them and insist upon their humanity anyway.

So to shift perspectives for a moment, some Europeans were advocating for human rights

but many many people without those rights were advocating for them.

And as for indigenous people in the New World, to present one story of their response to

colonization would be inaccurate--at times, communities and individuals resisted; at times,

some cooperated.

But it’s hard to overstate how destabilizing it was to these communities to lose in many

cases 90% of their population.

One of the huge changes though was the arrival of Christianity and the demand that the colonized

become Christians.

Christianity changed the Americas, but the Americas also changed Christianity.

In the face of the demand of the Church that conquered people become Catholic, they might

for instance blend their own beliefs with Catholic ones.

In 1531, the Aztec Cuauhtlatoatzin, whose baptismal name was Juan Diego, had five visions

of the Virgin Mary on a sacred Aztec spot of the corn goddess, near Mexico City.

Mary’s miracles left an imprint of her form on Juan Diego’s cape.

And on the cape, Mary appeared to be an Aztec woman wearing a robe with Aztec designs and

symbols.

This version of Mary, known as Our Lady of Guadalupe, was brown-skinned and was often

called, “the dark virgin.”

Many shrines to Our Lady of Guadalupe were built, and her story was written down both

in Spanish and in the Aztec language, Nahuatl.

Our Lady of Guadalupe replaced some of the local goddesses that were suppressed by the

Christians.

Women in particular took up devotion to her as a symbol of motherhood.

And today, Our Lady of Guadalupe’s basilica in Mexico City is said to be the most visited

shrine in the world.

It wasn’t too long before other European powers, eyeing these profits, sought to literally

capture Spanish wealth.

Like English privateer Francis Drake began his career of attacking Spanish shipping in

the 1560s and often seized huge fortunes for the queen and investors in his voyages.

While circumnavigating the globe, he captured stores of Spanish gold and silver from ships

along the west coast of South America.

In some cases, a single seizure might yield the equivalent of an entire year’s income

for the royal treasury.

You heard that right--taking down one Spanish ship could equal all the tax collection in

England for a year--which gives you a sense of just how much wealth was being extracted

from colonies.

No wonder Elizabeth knighted Drake in 1581 after he returned from his historic circumnavigation—which

was only the second circumnavigation of the globe in European history at the time.

And Drake made it home Magellan.

Stan am I allowed to make a joke about Magellan dying.

Has enough time passed?

Stan says “yes”.

Right.

So the French, Dutch, and other treasure-hungry people joined the English in Atlantic piracy,

which increased the wealth of many European kingdoms and individuals of course.

But those same European states also began imitating the Portuguese and Spanish in global

exploration, trade, and eventually settlement.

In 1497, Italian sailor John Cabot, which was not his Italian name by the way.

I’ve always found it very funny that the two most famous Italian sailors in history

are named John Cabot and Christopher Columbus.

At any rate John Cabot commissioned by Henry VII of England and landed somewhere north

of Maine, probably on the Canadian coast.

And then returned to London to great acclaim.

The English established the East India Company in 1600 to focus on their exploration efforts

and the Dutch founded a similar United East India Company in 1602, which brought together

several trading companies from various Dutch states.

And other governments chartered similar corporations.

These companies performed a variety of functions from gathering investors, and building ships,

to raising armies and taking over new territory and enslaving people to work conquered land.

Lest you think that like corporations are newly evil.

Which brings us to the slave trade.

Initially, Portuguese sailors sought to catch Africans they happened to spot along the coast,

and then sell them as slaves in Europe.

But by the end of the sixteenth century, the capture of Africans for sale to Europeans

became routine and then eventually a massive business for both African slade traders and

Europeans after 1650.

And this was also partly due to disease and the devastation of colonization.

The Spanish had trouble with sugar production in the Caribbean after the native Taino people

had been wiped out by disease; the British then took over and began importing African

slaves to work in sugar plantations.

By the eighteenth century British slavers had taken the lead in the Atlantic trade.

Partly due to petitions like those from Las Casas, Spanish rulings that Native Americans

could not be enslaved led the Spanish landowners and mine operators to import Africans and

Asians to stay within the law, which did not yet say that you know people could not be

enslaved.

Some Asian slaves, once brought to the Spanish Empire, were able to pass as local people,

and claim their freedom on that basis.

But almost everyone who was enslaved died in slavery.

Life expectancy was very low; all manner of mistreatment was common; and legal protections

were almost nonexistent.

It’s very important to consider those perspectives too.

And also to consider why traditionally those perspectives have been ignored.

We’ve talked about how the establishment of transoceanic travel meant that diseases,

and people, and finished goods were traveling across oceans but so were plants and animal

species.

This whole process is sometimes known as the Columbian exchange.

This movement of goods and people and species across the Atlantic was tremendously important

to history--before it, new world foods like pumpkins and tomatoes, maize, potatoes did

not even exist in Afroeurasia.

Did the globe open up?

What’s in the center of the world?

It’s a pumpkin.

You want to know why there were no jack-o-lanterns in 13th century Europe?

There were no pumpkins.

There was no popcorn because there was no corn.

#sponsored.

I wish.

I love this stuff.

You know the famous bananas of South America?

No, you don’t.

Bananas are from Africa.

They didn’t exist in the Americas until the Columbian exchange.

So much of what feels natural and even defining about our cultures and histories is in fact

really really new.

Nigerian cassava.

Irish potatoes.

Vanilla Ice Cream in Europe.

Tomatoes in Italy.

None of this was conceivable before the Columbian exchange.

Europeans also learned a lot from the Americas about food preservation.

Like the Incas dried some potatoes for instance, which made them lighter and easier to transport,

and then would later reconstitute them so they could be eaten, a strategy which fortified

messengers along the Inca’s extensive network of roads.

Similar processes came to be used in Europe and would eventually be used to fortify astronauts,

who often eat reconstituted dehydrated food.

And over time potatoes and maize (know here as corn) increased overall calories available

to Europeans because they could be dried and stored in huge quantities.

And that decreased starvation and increased populations.

Meanwhile, as we’ve discussed, the travel of microbes to the Americas devastated communities

there, and a range of Afroeurasian animals--horses, sheep, and pigs to name a few--arrived in

the New World for the first time.

In some ways, these new animals were useful of course, but they also did extensive damage,

stripping away vegetation necessary for soil conservation and trampling farm land.

And deforestation began with the clearing of forests for sugar cane production, as we

discussed earlier, a process that accelerated in Central and South Americas through the

twentieth century.

In Europe, sugar was initially such a precious luxury that a sprinkle of it was all that

even the wealthy could afford.

Queen Isabella of Castille and Spain gave a small box of sugar to her daughter as a

Christmas present to be treasured.

[[TV: Chocolate]] Chocolate began as a ceremonial drink for the powerful, as it was among the

Aztecs.

But as European communities became wealthier, more people transitioned from subsistence

living to being able to afford goods from distant places.

Treats of sugar, chocolate, tea, coffee and tobacco transformed attitudes, while the hot

water that was needed for making tea and coffee and hot cocoa is thought to have extended

the life spans in Europe by killing water-born germs.

And slowly the English and some of Spain and Portugal’s other competitors established

their own colonies—the English had the unsuccessful colony of Roanoke in the 1580s, and then Jamestown

in 1607, and the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1620.

Some of these settlers came in families but many came as single men and occasionally single

women.

And in the developing propaganda war among these rivals, English latecomers to the Atlantic

world promoted an idea that came to be called the “Black Legend.”

It maintained that unlike the tolerant and kind English Protestants, the Spanish were

bigoted Catholics, brutal and destructive of local people.

That would be what Psychologists call “projection.”

Today we know that English settlers slaughtered local peoples with abandon—even people on

whom their own survival depended because many adventurers had no knowledge of farming.

Moreover most English settlers were as bigoted as other Europeans in those days.

But the “Black Legend” was a really powerful idea in history for a long time--in fact,

when I was a kid growing up in Florida, I was told that it was unfortunate Florida had

been a Spanish colony, because the English were much kinder rulers.

So by the end of the seventeenth century, the rush for trade and empire was in full

swing.

Plantations based on New World tobacco had been set up in North America and sugar mills

in the Caribbean and South America.

Mining and many other lucrative enterprises as well as the promise of exploitable land

kept the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans crowded with voyagers.

All the while most native people ruled by colonizers saw the vast majority of their

labor’s value exported.

It was the beginning of the true globalization we experience today, complete with all of

its contradictions and complexities.

We live in a world today of tremendous abundance where a pinch of sugar is not generally seen

as a great Christmas present.

Starvation and child mortality are more rare than they have ever been.

But we also live in a world with profound inequality and injustice, where the powerful

have legal and social protections that the weak do not.

It’s important to remember that in all those senses we are the products of history--but

of course we are also producing history.

Thanks for watching.

I’ll see you next time.

________________

[i] Bernal Dias, quoted in Jackson J. Spielvogel, Western Civilization, 7th ed.

(Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2009) 419.

[ii] Bartolomé Las Casas, “Thirty Very Juridical Propositions” (1552) quoted in

Bonnie G. Smith, ed., Modern Empires: A Reader (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018)

64-67.