How Electricity Gets to You

Summary

This script delves into the intricacies of electricity generation and distribution, highlighting the challenges of matching supply to demand in real-time. It explains the role of various power sources like nuclear, coal, natural gas, and renewables, and how they address base-load and peak demands. The script also explores the economic and technical aspects of energy storage, the evolution of the electric grid with renewable integration, and the importance of efficient long-distance power transmission. It concludes with a look at how electric vehicles could contribute to the grid's storage needs, offering a glimpse into a greener, more efficient energy future.

Takeaways

• ⚡ Electricity is generated from various energy sources like water, gas, wind, and is transmitted over long distances to power everyday devices.
• 🌐 Electric grids are vast, complex machines that must balance supply and demand with zero slack, unlike water systems which have some buffer.
• 🔆 Demand for electricity varies greatly depending on the time of day and season, with peaks typically in the morning and evening, and higher overall demand in winter and summer months.
• 🏠 The public library in Glenwood Springs, Colorado, illustrates the process of electricity generation and distribution, highlighting the variability in demand.
• 🌡️ Base-load power, provided by nuclear and coal power plants, operates continuously to meet the minimum demand, while natural gas plants are used for peak demand.
• 🌿 The integration of renewable energy sources like wind and solar is changing the electricity generation landscape, offering free power but with variable supply.
• 🔋 Energy storage is crucial for balancing supply and demand, but current battery technology is expensive and not yet practical for widespread grid storage.
• 🚗 The potential for electric vehicles (EVs) to act as mobile energy storage units, providing power back to the grid, is an emerging concept.
• 💧 Hydroelectric power offers a reliable and green energy source, with the ability to start and stop production quickly, and even store energy by pumping water uphill.
• 🌉 Efficient long-distance transmission of electricity is key, with high-voltage lines reducing power loss, and the use of direct current (DC) for very long distances.
• 🏢 The final step in electricity delivery involves stepping down high voltages to levels suitable for residential and commercial use, such as those in Glenwood Springs.

Q & A

What is the significance of electric grids in terms of their size and function?

Electric grids are considered some of the single largest machines in existence, stretching across entire continents. They are responsible for delivering electricity from power sources to consumers, with zero slack, meaning supply must match demand in real-time.

How does the variability in electricity demand affect the operation of electric grids?

The variability in electricity demand from minute-to-minute and month-to-month makes the task of converting natural fuels or phenomena into electric power difficult. Utilities must forecast demand based on trends, such as seasonal peaks and daily usage patterns, to match supply with demand.

What are the typical daily demand trends for electricity in the US during different months?

In January, there is a two-peak daily demand trend, with spikes around 7:00 AM and in the evening. In July, energy use is highest in the late-afternoon or early-evening, but this varies by region, with the Southwest peaking around 4:00 pm and the northwest around 6:00 pm.

How do special events like holidays impact electricity demand?

Special events, such as the Superbowl, can cause a temporary drop in electricity demand as people turn off lights and stop cooking to watch the event, illustrating the need for utilities to factor in such events when forecasting demand.

What role does nuclear power play in the electricity supply, and why is it not used to match demand?

Nuclear power provides a stable supply of electricity 24/7 and is not designed to be turned off and on easily. It is impractical to operate nuclear power stations in response to demand fluctuations due to the time and cost required to shutdown and start up again.

Why are coal power stations also run continuously, and what is their role in the energy mix?

Coal power stations, like nuclear, are not designed to be fired up quickly and are economically inefficient to run idle. They typically fulfill the base-load, producing the minimum amount of power needed at the lowest point in daily demand.

How do natural gas fired plants contribute to meeting peak electricity demand?

Natural gas fired plants, particularly those with simple cycle combustion turbines, can reach full power within 15 minutes, making them effective for responding to short peaks in demand, such as during hot summer afternoons.

What challenges do renewable energy sources like wind and solar present to the electric grid?

Renewable energy sources like wind and solar are variable and uncontrollable, which means they can't match supply to demand as reliably as traditional power sources. This variability requires the grid to adapt with storage solutions or other flexible generation methods.

How does battery storage help balance electricity supply and demand, and what are its limitations?

Battery storage systems can store excess electricity when demand is low and release it when demand is high. However, they are currently limited by high costs and the need for significant infrastructure, making widespread grid storage economically impractical.

What is the concept of vehicle-to-grid and how could it potentially help with grid storage?

Vehicle-to-grid is a concept where electric vehicles (EVs) could charge during off-peak hours and return electricity to the grid during peak demand. This could help balance supply and demand, but the real-world economics and technical feasibility are still being explored.

How does hydroelectric power contribute to the grid's ability to respond to variable electricity demand?

Hydroelectric power is a reliable and low-carbon source of electricity that can start and stop making power quickly, allowing it to respond to demand fluctuations. Additionally, facilities like pumped-storage hydroelectricity can store energy by pumping water uphill when demand is low and generate power when demand is high.

Why is high-voltage transmission important for long-distance electricity transport, and what are its benefits?

High-voltage transmission is crucial for efficiently transporting electricity over long distances because higher voltages result in less power loss during transmission. This allows for more centralized and cost-effective electricity production and distribution.

How do transformers play a role in the efficient distribution of electricity?

Transformers allow for the conversion of electricity between higher and lower voltages, which is essential for efficient distribution. Higher voltages reduce power loss during transmission, while lower voltages are necessary for safe use by consumers.

Outlines

00:00

🔌 Electricity Grids: The Invisible Juggernaut

This paragraph discusses the nature of electricity as a commodity that is converted from various energy sources like water, gas, or wind, and transmitted across vast distances to power everyday devices. It highlights the real-time demand and supply challenge of electricity, with examples of how flipping a switch in Los Angeles could trigger a turbine in Washington. The paragraph also explains the lack of slack in electricity supply, contrasting it with water systems that have storage reservoirs. It details the variability in electricity demand, seasonal trends, and daily patterns, emphasizing the need for utilities to forecast and match supply with demand instantaneously. The base-load supply is typically provided by nuclear and coal power plants, which operate continuously due to their high setup costs and impracticality of frequent startups.

05:02

🌤️ Reinventing the Grid with Renewables

The second paragraph explores how the integration of renewable energy sources like wind and solar is changing the traditional electricity generation model. It discusses the cost-effectiveness of renewables once installed, contrasting it with the variable costs of natural gas plants. The paragraph outlines the unpredictability of solar and wind power, which creates challenges for grid management. It also touches on the economic and practical limitations of electricity storage, using lithium-ion batteries as an example. The concept of vehicle-to-grid (V2G) is introduced, where electric vehicles could potentially provide energy back to the grid, compensating owners for their contribution. The paragraph concludes with a mention of hydroelectric power as a reliable and green energy source, and the Cabin Creek Generating Station's innovative approach to energy storage by pumping water to a higher reservoir during low-demand periods.

10:03

🌉 The Art of Long-Distance Power Transmission

This section delves into the complexities of transmitting electricity over long distances, emphasizing the trade-off between transmission losses and the economies of scale achieved by centralized power production. It explains the importance of high-voltage transmission for reducing power loss, using the example of Colorado's Craig Generating Station and its connection to high-voltage lines. The paragraph also discusses the evolution of transmission infrastructure, from 345 kilovolt lines to the highest standard of 765 kilovolts in the US, and the benefits of direct current (DC) transmission for long distances, exemplified by the Pacific DC Intertie. The concept of stepping down voltage levels as electricity gets closer to its end-users is also explained, highlighting the economic and efficiency rationale behind this practice.

15:07

🏢 From Power Plants to Your Home: The Final Leg

The final paragraph focuses on the last stages of electricity distribution, from high-voltage transmission lines to the final transformation into usable voltages for buildings. It discusses the cost implications of different voltage levels for transmission infrastructure and the reasons for stepping down voltages to more manageable levels for local distribution. The paragraph provides a detailed example of how electricity from the Craig Power Station is transformed and transmitted to the Glenwood Springs public library, illustrating the entire process from generation to end-use. It concludes with a metaphorical comparison to domain name supply, emphasizing the stability and uniqueness of domain names in contrast to the dynamic nature of electricity supply.

Keywords

💡Electric Grid

An electric grid, also known as the power grid, is a network for delivering electricity from producers to consumers. It consists of high-voltage transmission lines and substations that transform voltage to medium or low levels for distribution to users. In the video, electric grids are described as some of the largest machines in existence, stretching across entire continents and requiring precise matching of supply and demand for electricity.

💡Demand Variability

Demand variability refers to the fluctuations in the consumption of electricity over different time scales, from minutes to months. The video explains that electricity demand can vary greatly depending on factors like time of day, season, and weather, making it challenging to maintain a balance between electricity supply and demand.

💡Base-Load

Base-load in the context of power generation refers to the minimum amount of power that a utility must supply continuously to meet the expected demand. The video mentions that base-load is typically provided by stable sources like nuclear and coal power plants, which run continuously and are not easily turned off and on.

💡Peaker Plants

Peaker plants are power generation plants that are used to meet peak demand for electricity. They are typically called upon when there is a surge in demand, such as during hot summer afternoons. The video explains that unlike base-load plants, peaker plants can be quickly ramped up and down to match the variability in electricity demand.

💡Renewable Energy

Renewable energy refers to energy sources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as wind, solar, and hydroelectric power. The video discusses how the integration of renewable energy sources is changing the way electricity is generated and managed, as these sources can produce 'free' electricity but are subject to variability due to weather and other natural conditions.

💡Energy Storage

Energy storage involves capturing energy produced at one time for use at a later time. The video highlights the challenges of storing electricity, such as the high costs associated with battery technology, and how it is a critical component for balancing supply and demand in a grid with a significant share of renewable energy.

💡Transmission Losses

Transmission losses refer to the decrease in power as electricity travels along transmission lines, typically due to energy conversion to heat. The video explains how higher voltage transmission reduces these losses, making it more efficient to transport electricity over long distances.

💡High-Voltage Transmission

High-voltage transmission is the process of sending electricity over long distances using high voltage levels to reduce power loss. The video provides examples of high-voltage transmission lines, such as those operating at 345 kilovolts or even 765 kilovolts, which are crucial for moving electricity from areas of surplus to areas of demand.

💡Hydroelectric Power

Hydroelectric power is electricity generated by harnessing the power of moving water, typically through dams and turbines. The video describes hydroelectric power as a reliable and green source of energy that can respond quickly to changes in electricity demand, making it valuable for balancing the grid.

💡Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)

Vehicle-to-Grid is a concept where electric vehicles (EVs) can both draw power from and supply power back to the grid. The video suggests that as EV adoption increases, their batteries could potentially be used to help balance electricity supply and demand, especially during peak times.

Highlights

Electricity is derived from various forms of energy like water, gas, wind, potentially from hundreds or thousands of miles away.

Electric grids are considered some of the largest machines in existence, stretching across entire continents.

Electricity supply must match demand with zero slack, unlike water systems.

Electricity demand varies significantly from minute-to-minute and month-to-month.

Annual electricity demand peaks correlate with climate, with January and July being the highest.

Daily electricity demand in January shows a two-peak trend, in the morning and evening.

In July, energy use peaks in the late-afternoon or early-evening, depending on the region.

Holidays and special events can significantly impact electricity demand.

Utilities match supply to demand by layering different energy sources.

Nuclear power provides a stable base-load supply due to its continuous operation and high setup cost.

Coal power stations, like nuclear, run continuously to meet base-load demand.

Natural gas-fired plants are used for their quick startup to meet peak demand.

Renewable energy sources like wind and solar are changing the traditional base-load and peaker plants system.

Storing electricity is challenging and currently economically impractical for large-scale grid storage.

Battery-electric storage systems are being used in specific cases, like Fort Carson, to save on electricity costs.

The concept of vehicle-to-grid, where electric vehicles supply electricity back to the grid, is emerging.

Hydroelectric power is a reliable and green source of electricity, capable of responding to demand.

Long-distance transmission of electricity is essential for efficient grid operation.

High-voltage transmission lines reduce power loss, making them more efficient for long-distance electricity transport.

Direct current transmission is more efficient than alternating current for long-distance power lines.

Transcripts

A fraction of a second ago, the electricity powering your lights, your air conditioning,

your television, your refrigerator, nearly everything electric around you right now,

was water, gas, wind, or some other form of energy, potentially hundreds or thousands

of miles away.

If you flip a light switch in Los Angeles, that could cause a turbine in Washington to

start spinning.

Electric grids are considered some of the single largest machines in existence—they

stretch across entire continents—but they’re machines with absolutely zero slack.

With water systems, for example, there’s some extra supply in a storage reservoir at

the treatment plant, and some extra supply in the pipes connecting the treatment plant

to your home—supply only has to roughly match demand—but that’s not the case with

electricity.

Your lights, your TV, your microwave—everything plugged into the grid uses electricity produced

just moments ago.

For the sake of example, let’s look at what it takes to turn on the lights at the public

library in the small town of Glenwood Springs, Colorado.

Now, what makes the relatively straightforward task of converting natural fuels or phenomena

into electric power difficult is the huge variability in demand from minute-to-minute

and month-to-month.

There are, however, some trends.

On an annual basis, the peaks correlate to climate—January represents the winter high-water

mark as many homes and businesses turn on their electric heating, while July typically

ranks highest outright as the country battles summer heat with air conditioners.

The month-to-month variations are not that significant, though—the difference between

the highest and lowest demand months is less than a third.

Most of the variability happens across a given day.

In January, all regions of the US observe a two-peak daily demand trend, where electricity

use spikes around 7:00 AM as people turn up their thermostats and fire up lights and appliances

as they wake up and get ready for the day.

Then, demand peaks again when people return from work in the evening and do the same.

Meanwhile, in July, energy use is highest in the late-afternoon or early-evening, but

this does depend on the region.

For example, in the sweltering Southwest, usage peaks around 4:00 pm—around the hottest

hour of the afternoon, when air conditioners have to work the hardest.

In the more temperate northwest, though, which includes Colorado and that Glenwood Springs

public library, fewer buildings have air conditioning so demand peaks around 6:00 pm—pulled back

by post-work use of appliances, lights, televisions, and more.

These trends then get further complicated by holidays and special events—for example,

on Superbowl Sunday in the US, demand plummets for a few hours as people turn off the lights,

stop cooking, and gather together at others’ homes to watch the big game.

This is all to say, when forecasting demand, utilities need to factor in the hour, day,

season, location, and plenty more.

Now, with whatever demand materializes, utilities then need to essentially instantly match supply.

To do this, they layer different energy sources on top of each other.

Often, the lowest layer is Nuclear Power.

Nuclear power stations aren’t designed to be able to turn off and on easily—it would

take the better part of a day to shutdown and start up again—so it’s rather impractical

to operate these in response to demand.

In addition, considering how massively expensive their construction is, it would economically

inefficient to let these stations run idle.

Therefore, they’ll run nearly continuously for the entirety of their service lives, except

for during planned maintenance.

This means they provide the most stable supply of electricity 24/7.

Colorado no longer operates any nuclear power plants, but it does have six of the next layer—coal

power stations.

Like nuclear, most of these coal plants cannot be fired up quickly, as they take some time

to get up to temperature, so utilities will also run them essentially continuously.

Coal and nuclear combined typically fulfill what’s called the base-load.

Their continuous production essentially equals the valley of demand—they’ll make the

minimum amount of power needed at a point in the day.

So then, on top of that, utilities need production methods that can fire up and shut down far

faster—they need to be able to produce the power to operate all those AC units in hot

summer afternoons.

The bulk of this job is completed by natural gas fired plants.

Of the 25 in Colorado, 13 of these stations generate using a simple cycle combustion turbine.

This is the simplest means of turning natural gas into electricity—much like a jet engine,

the fuel is used to turn a turbine, which turns a generator, which produces electricity.

More advanced natural gas power plants recover the hot exhaust to convert it into electricity

too, but the startup process for these takes longer, so simple cycle stations are used

for applications where speed is key.

Most can reach full power within 15 minutes, making them an effective tool to respond to

those short peaks in demand.

Nuclear, coal, and natural gas are some of the more traditional means of generating electricity.

The recent proliferation of renewable energy sources, though, has kickstarted an reinvention

of this system of base-load and peaker plants.

That’s because, when wind and solar generating stations can make power, that power is essentially

free—meaning there’s essentially no additional, variable cost to generate power once the panels

or turbines are installed.

That’s not the case with natural gas fired plants, for example, as the gas itself represents

one of their primary costs.

So, this essentially creates a new bottom layer to the energy mix—but it’s a bottom

layer that’s uncontrollably variable.

One sunny, windy day could mean that a state has an excess of electricity when added to

its base-load sources, while one cloudy, windless day could mean that the peaker plants have

to operate at full force.

Solar and onshore wind power are now some of the cheapest sources of electricity, but

because they rely on natural phenomena, they can’t match supply to demand the way that

the traditional nuclear, coal, natural gas trifecta can.

Therefore, grids are being reinvented so that supply doesn’t have to match demand—at

least minute-to-minute.

Of course, the way to do that is with storage, but storing electricity is not easy.

The average American household uses about 30 kilowatt-hours of electricity per day.

Lithium-ion batteries currently cost around $130 per kilowatt-hour, meaning one-day’s

storage for one household would cost around $3,900 in batteries—and that’s excluding

all the additional infrastructure needed to make such an installation possible.

Considering the average American household pays less than half that per year in electricity

bills, installing such a system grid-wide would be economically impractical.

Nonetheless, Colorado has four battery-electric storage systems—albeit it at a relatively

minor scale.

The largest of which is used to power Fort Carson—a US army base near Colorado Springs.

They charge up the 8.5 megawatt battery at night, when electricity demand, and therefore

rates, are low, then use the power during the day when the majority of the base’s

electricity use occurs.

The system’s savings should make up for its installation cost in about 13 years, then

by the end of its practical lifespan it’s expected to have saved the army about half

a million dollars in electricity costs.

While such a system can make economic sense for large complexes that can invest in infrastructure

that won’t pay off for more than a decade, it’s just not practical grid-wide—at least

right now.

Even if there was the battery production capacity to make a meaningful dent in the world’s

electricity use, the savings just happen too far in the future for most to consider such

storage to be worth it.

However, for entirely different reasons, in the coming decades, more and more people will

be purchasing massive battery packs—the ones inside their EVs.

With most forecasts suggesting that some third of new car sales in the US will be electric

by 2030, a potential solution to the grid’s storage need could arise naturally.

A Rivian R1T, for example, holds a 135 kilowatt-hour battery pack, meaning it could, theoretically,

power the average American household for four and a half days.

While EV’s typically take in electricity, little stands in the way technologically from

them giving that electricity back to the grid.

So, the idea is that EV’s could charge at night or when renewables are performing well,

then supply some of that electricity back to the grid during the day while parked and

plugged in.

In exchange, vehicle owners would be compensated a small amount by the utility company.

While the real-world, wide-scale economics have yet to be proven, especially in the face

of battery degradation, this vehicle-to-grid concept could potentially play a cooperative

role in the transition towards a greener grid.

Now, the largest current battery electric storage system in Colorado, the Fort Carson

installation, has 8.5 megawatts of capacity.

Elsewhere in the state, however, there’s a massive, different form of battery can can

power over 10,000 homes at once—and it looks like this.

Water is one of the earliest forms of energy that humans harnessed, and it still represents

one of the best sources of electricity.

Hydroelectric power is the best of both worlds.

While there’s certainly the potential for environmental damage from damming up rivers,

the carbon impact is near-zero, meaning hydro is green like wind and solar.

However, it’s also reliable.

In theory, hydroelectric dams can start and stop making power in minutes—even if in

practice a minimum flow is typically maintained—so they can operate like those natural gas, single-cycle

peaker plants, responding to demand.

Of course, there’s only so much water upstream—especially in a place like Colorado, which is in the

midst of a 20-year-long drought—but hydroelectric dams simply convert potential energy into

electric energy.

There’s no reason why that process can’t happen in reverse.

That’s what happens here, at the Cabin Creek Generating Station.

When electricity’s cheap—typically at night, or when wind and solar are performing

at their peak—the facility uses it to pump water to its upper, higher-elevation reservoir.

Then, when electricity’s expensive and in demand, like in the late afternoon, it will

start flowing that water through its turbines, out into its lower reservoir.

It’s essentially a form of price arbitrage, but its one that’s already helping smooth

out the peaks and valleys of wind and solar power production.

Now, no matter how well supply is matched to demand, electricity is of no use to that

Glenwood Springs, Colorado library until, of course, it gets there.

Many have an image of power plants as something sitting just outside every town and city.

While that’s how the earliest grids operated, it’s hardly the case anymore.

Despite dramatic declines in the past decade, some 42% of Colorado’s power supply still

comes from coal.

That means that nearly half of the state’s electricity originates from, essentially,

just six sites—the state’s coal power stations.

Therefore, the ability to efficiently transport electricity over a long distance is essential.

Now, what makes long-distance transmission tricky is simple: the further you send electricity,

the more you lose along the way—typically through unavoidable conversion to heat.

Meanwhile, the more centralized your electricity production, the less it costs—it’s simple

economies of scale.

Therefore, the task of transmission is all about balancing these competing effects to

find an equilibrium.

Now, houses, businesses, and other buildings connected to the electric grid all use alternating

current power.

A big reason why this standard beat out its direct current competitor in the days of Tesla,

Westinghouse, and Edison is because it’s relatively easy to convert AC power between

higher and lower voltages using transformers.

What makes this crucial is that the higher the voltage, the less electricity lost during

transmission.

Specifically, a doubling in voltage quarters the power loss in transmission.

That relatively simple voltage transformation allows for a more efficient electricity distribution

system.

Colorado’s second largest power plant is this: the Craig Generating Station.

It connects to some of the state’s highest voltage transmission lines—two of which

head due south until the town of Rifle.

Now, these lines operate at 345 kilovolts, which means that, in theory, over the 75 mile

or 120 kilometer stretch from Craig to Rifle, about 3.2% of the electricity is lost—a

relatively minor amount, thanks to the efficiency of high-voltage transmission.

Other more densely populated regions, which need more electric transmission capacity,

have even higher voltage lines, all the way up to 765 kilovolts—the current highest

voltage transmission standard in the US.

Quite few of these lines exist in the US—there’s one connecting Quebec to New York State, and

then a larger system spanning between Illinois and Virginia.

These can carry about six times as much electricity as the 345 kilovolt line between Craig and

Rifle and, thanks to their high voltage, see as little as 0.6% loss per 100 miles or 160

kilometers.

That means that, in theory, assuming the infrastructure existed, a 765 kilovolt line could transmit

electricity from New York to LA, and about 87% of it would still be there at the other

end.

That’s why these high-voltage lines are becoming more and more common.

But what’s even more efficient than transmitting an alternating current at a super high voltage

is transmitting a direct current.

Of course, the difficulty with direct current is that transforming it between voltages is

more expensive than with AC, and for use in today’s grid, it has to be converted to

AC power, which is also expensive.

However, compared to the absolute lowest 0.6% loss per 100 miles with the highest voltage

AC lines, DC lines see as little as 0.45% loss per 100 miles.

Therefore, when there’s a need to transmit a huge amount of electricity over a long distance,

the economics can work in favor of converting power to DC at its origin, and converting

it back to AC at its destination.

Perhaps the most prominent application of such a system in the US is the Pacific DC

Intertie, stretching between northern Oregon and Los Angeles, California.

In the summer, the temperate northwest has relatively little power demand, but generates

a huge amount of cheap electricity thanks to its hydroelectric dams.

So, the Pacific DC Intertie sends this electricity south to power Los Angeles’ air conditioners

during its hot summer.

Meanwhile, in the winter, Los Angeles sees temperate weather and little need for climate

control, so it sends its excess electricity north to the Pacific Northwest to power its

electric heating.

Phenomena like this demonstrate why creating a greener, more efficient grid involves a

proliferation of long-distance power transmission infrastructure—its needed to balance out

seasonal trends, and to bring power from where it can be produced easily to where it cannot.

Back in Colorado, though, its relatively minor 345 kilovolt line from the Craig Power Station

eventually enters this more-populated area flanking Interstate 70.

Here, there are a number of nearby towns that need electricity, but sending 345 kilovolts

to each of these would not be efficient.

That’s simply because the higher the voltage, the higher the construction cost.

A 345 kilovolt substation might cost $10.7 million, while a 230 kilovolt one just $7.6

million.

Meanwhile, a 345 kilovolt line costs around $4.5 million per mile to build, while a 230

kilovolt line just $2.8 million.

Therefore, even though the transmission losses will be greater, a number of substations around

Rifle transform the electricity to 230 kilovolts, and then smaller, cheaper lines carry the

flow west, south, and east, closer to its final customers.

About 30 miles or 50 kilometers to the east, this line encounters another substation, which

steps it down to just 69 kilovolts and then another yet smaller line circles back towards

Glenwood Springs.

The power is then stepped down again to 12.47 kilovolts, before a final transformer converts

it to 120, 240, or 480 volts—the voltages used by almost all buildings in the US, including

the public library of Glenwood Springs, Colorado.

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