The misinformation effect | Elizabeth Loftus | Nobel Prize Summit 2023

Summary

In this enlightening talk, a renowned memory researcher delves into the intricacies of human memory, highlighting its fallibility and the phenomenon of false memories. Through studies on the misinformation effect and the creation of rich false memories, the speaker demonstrates how easily memories can be manipulated or fabricated, even without the subject's awareness. The discussion raises critical ethical questions about the use of such psychological techniques and the potential impact of advancing technologies like deep fakes on memory authenticity, urging the audience to seek independent verification for the veracity of memories.

Takeaways

• 🧠 Importance of Memory: The speaker emphasizes the fundamental role of memory in daily life and its significance for personal and scientific understanding.
• 🔍 Types of Memory: A distinction is made between semantic (fact-based) memories and episodic (personal experience) memories.
• 🕵️‍♂️ Misinformation Paradigm: The speaker discusses a scientific approach to studying how post-event misinformation can alter personal recollections of an event.
• 🦄 False Memory Phenomenon: The presentation delves into the concept of false memories, which can be implanted and felt as real, challenging the reliability of personal recollections.
• 🎓 Long-term Research: The speaker's 50 years of research in memory studies have contributed to the understanding of memory distortion and the misinformation effect.
• 🚦 Misleading Questions: The power of subtly misleading questions to alter memory, like suggesting a yield sign instead of a stop sign, is highlighted.
• 🤯 High Conversion Rate: The speaker reveals that about 30% of subjects in studies developed false memories, with an additional 23% developing false beliefs.
• 🍽️ Impact on Behavior: False memories can influence behavior, such as altering food preferences based on implanted memories of sickness from certain foods.
• 🧬 Similarity in Brain Activity: Neuroimaging studies show similar neural signals for both true and false memories, making it difficult to distinguish between them based on brain activity alone.
• 🔮 Ethical Concerns: The potential misuse of memory manipulation techniques raises significant ethical questions about the appropriate use and regulation of such practices.
• 🔮 Future Challenges: The speaker predicts that advancements in technology, such as deep fakes, will exacerbate the issue of false memory implantation and its societal implications.

Q & A

What is the main topic of the speaker's presentation?

The main topic is the study of memory, specifically the phenomenon of false memories and how they can be implanted in individuals.

What are the two types of memories the speaker distinguishes in the script?

The speaker distinguishes between semantic memories, also known as fact memories, and personal memories, which are individual experiences.

What is the 'misinformation paradigm' referred to by the speaker?

The misinformation paradigm is a scientific method where participants are exposed to misleading information after witnessing an event, and later their memory of the original event is tested to observe the effects of the misinformation.

Can the speaker make people remember events that never happened to them?

The speaker suggests that through certain techniques, such as the misinformation paradigm, it is possible to implant false memories of events that never occurred.

What is the 'rich false memory procedure' mentioned in the script?

The 'rich false memory procedure' is a method developed by the speaker to implant false memories without an initial event, using suggestions about the past to see what participants then remember.

What percentage of people developed a false memory or belief in the mega analysis mentioned by the speaker?

In the mega analysis, about 30% of the time people developed a false memory, and an additional 23% developed a false belief that the event had happened to them.

How do false memories affect people's behavior, according to the speaker?

False memories can influence behavior, such as changing dietary habits when a false memory of getting sick from a certain food is implanted.

What is the ethical concern raised by the speaker regarding the implantation of false memories?

The ethical concern is about when and how to use this technology of implanting false memories, and the need for regulation to prevent misuse.

What is the potential impact of deep fake technology on memory implantation, as discussed by the speaker?

Deep fake technology could make it easier to doctor photographs and videos, potentially planting false memories more effectively and widely.

What is the speaker's final message about the reliability of memories?

The speaker's final message is that memories, whether true or false, can be equally real and vivid, and that independent corroboration is needed to verify their authenticity.

What quote does the speaker reference to illustrate the similarity between true and false memories?

The speaker references a quote by Dolly, suggesting that false memories can seem as real and brilliant as true ones.

Outlines

00:00

🧠 The Power and Malleability of Memory

The speaker begins by emphasizing the importance of memory in daily life and distinguishes between semantic (fact-based) and episodic (personal experience) memories. They introduce the concept of memory manipulation, questioning whether it's possible to implant false memories of events such as a vicious animal attack, a serious crime, or cheating in a game. The speaker reveals their extensive research in memory over 50 years, focusing on the misinformation paradigm, which involves presenting misleading information post-event to alter people's recollections. They demonstrate how this can be done subtly, like suggesting a yield sign instead of a stop sign in an accident scenario, affecting people's memory of the event.

05:03

📉 The Misinformation Effect and False Memories

This section delves into the misinformation effect, where exposure to misleading information after an event can impair memory performance. The speaker discusses the prevalence of misinformation in real life and its impact on memory. They recount their discovery of 'rich false memories' in the 1990s, particularly in psychotherapy, where patients developed memories of traumatic events that were not substantiated. To study this phenomenon, they developed the 'Lost in the Mall' false memory procedure, which involves planting suggestions about past events without an actual event occurring. The speaker shares the surprising findings that approximately 30% of subjects developed false memories, and an additional 23% developed a false belief in the event's occurrence. They also touch on the consequences of false memories, such as altered behavior towards certain foods after implanting a false memory of getting sick from them.

10:03

🔍 Ethical Considerations and Future Implications

The speaker explores the methods of planting false memories without deception, using the example of push polls, which are disguised as information-gathering techniques but aim to influence opinions and memories. They discuss the ethical implications of memory manipulation, questioning when and how this technology should be used. Looking to the future, the speaker predicts the increasing sophistication of memory alteration through doctored photographs and deepfake technology, which raises further concerns about the authenticity of memories and the potential for widespread misinformation. The speaker concludes with a cautionary message about the reliability of memories, emphasizing the need for independent corroboration to distinguish between true and false memories.

15:05

🌟 The Brilliance of False Memories

In the final paragraph, the speaker reflects on the indistinguishability of true and false memories, highlighting a quote from Dolly that likens the false memories to jewels, suggesting they can seem as real and brilliant as true ones. The speaker corrects the interpretation, stating that while false memories may not be more real or brilliant than true ones, they are equally real and brilliant in the minds of those who hold them. This serves as a reminder of the complex nature of memory and the importance of skepticism when evaluating the authenticity of memories.

Keywords

💡Memory

Memory is the mental process of storing and retrieving information. It is central to the video's theme as it discusses the reliability and fallibility of human memory. The script uses examples such as remembering how to make coffee or finding car keys to illustrate the everyday importance of memory.

💡Semantic Memory

Semantic memory refers to the memory of general knowledge, facts, and concepts that are not tied to personal experiences. In the video, the speaker distinguishes semantic memories from personal memories, using the example of knowing that 'Paxlovid is a good treatment for COVID' as a type of semantic memory.

💡Misinformation Paradigm

The Misinformation Paradigm is a research method used to study how post-event information can alter the recollection of an event. The script explains this concept by describing a study where participants were shown an accident and later given misleading information, which affected their memory of the event.

💡False Memory

False memory is a memory that does not correspond to an actual event or experience. The video delves into the concept of false memories, showing how they can be implanted through various means, such as the 'Lost in a Shopping Mall' study mentioned in the script.

💡Memory Distortion

Memory distortion refers to the alteration of a memory, making it inaccurate or incomplete. The video's theme heavily revolves around this concept, demonstrating how easily memories can be distorted by misinformation or suggestion.

💡Ethical Questions

Ethical questions pertain to the moral implications and responsibilities associated with the use of certain technologies or methods. The script raises ethical concerns about the potential misuse of memory manipulation techniques, such as push polls, and the need for regulation.

💡Push Polls

Push polls are a form of political campaigning that disguises itself as a poll but aims to influence voters by suggesting negative information about a candidate. The video discusses how push polls can not only affect voting intentions but also implant false memories of the candidate's actions.

💡Deepfake Technology

Deepfake technology involves the use of artificial intelligence to create realistic but fake images or videos. The script warns of the potential for deepfake technology to exacerbate the problem of false memories by creating convincing but false visual evidence.

💡Corroboration

Corroboration is the confirmation or support of a statement or claim by additional evidence or testimony. The speaker in the video emphasizes the importance of corroboration in distinguishing true memories from false ones.

💡Emotional Memory

Emotional memory is the recollection of experiences that are associated with strong emotions. The script mentions the common misconception that true memories are more emotional than false ones, but the research shows that false memories can also be emotionally charged.

💡Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

fMRI is a neuroimaging procedure that measures and maps the activity of the brain. The video discusses the use of fMRI to explore the neural signals associated with true and false memories, finding similarities rather than differences.

Highlights

The importance of memory in daily life and scientific distinction between different types of memories.

Introduction of the misinformation paradigm to study the effects of post-event information on memory.

Demonstration of how misleading questions can implant false memories, like turning a stop sign into a yield sign.

The application of misinformation studies to real-world scenarios, including legal events and soldiers' experiences.

The emergence of false memory problems in psychotherapy and the development of the rich false memory procedure.

The revelation that false memories can be emotionally charged and felt as real as true memories.

Neuroimaging studies showing similarities in brain activity for both true and false memories.

The ethical implications of memory manipulation and its potential misuse in society.

The impact of false memories on behavior, such as changes in food preferences.

The exploration of push polls as a method to subtly influence voters' memories and voting intentions.

The potential for deepfake technology to exacerbate the problem of false memory implantation.

The importance of seeking independent corroboration to distinguish between true and false memories.

Dolly Parton's quote on the similarity between the vividness of true and false memories.

The speaker's 50 years of research on memory and the critical message about the unreliability of memory without verification.

The future challenges posed by AI and deepfake technology in the context of memory manipulation.

The need for regulation and ethical considerations in the use of memory manipulation techniques.

The speaker's final thoughts on the indistinguishability of true and false memories without external validation.

Transcripts

[Applause]

thanks and it's a pleasure and an honor

to be here to talk to you about some of

the work that I've done in the area of

memory

um because I mean we all know how

important memory is without it you

wouldn't know how to make the coffee in

the morning or find the car keys or take

the metro or however you got here

also as scientists we make a distinction

between a couple of different kinds of

memories that are stored in our memory

banks so there are semantic memories or

you might call them fact memories like

we're in Washington DC right now that's

a fact in our memory

um or something like Pax lovid is a good

treatment for covid or global warming is

happening but what I study are personal

memories so so things like I knew I was

going to have to go backwards things

like we just saw some really cool magic

trick or uh

maybe a month ago or so I saw a crime

and I want to tell somebody about it but

memory doesn't always work perfectly and

so I'm going to ask you

do you think I could make you remember

do you think I could make you remember

that you were attacked by a vicious

animal as a child if it didn't happen to

you

do you think I could make you remember

that as a teenager you committed a crime

and it was serious enough that the

police actually came to investigate do

you think I could make you remember that

a week ago

you played a game and you cheated in the

game and you took money out of the game

Bank when you weren't entitled to that

money

do you think I could make you remember

these things could I pour these ideas

into your mind and make you remember

these things personally if they didn't

happen to you you know I asked that

question and a lot of people say no way

I mean no way I'd confess to a crime I

didn't do no way I'd think I was

attacked by an animal if I wasn't but

we'll see how you feel in another 10

minutes or so

uh

because I've been studying memory for

more than 50 years now and in the course

of that career I've developed a couple

of paradigms for examining human memory

and one of those paradigms is called the

misinformation Paradigm so what happens

in these scientific studies is people

see some event you know a crime and

accident I've been particularly

interested in legal events and later on

they get some post event information

often misleading information about that

event

and then we'll test people and ask them

what they personally remember about

their experience and so we've shown lots

and lots of people simulated accidents

for example I in one of my older studies

we showed people an accident where a car

goes through an intersection

with a stop sign

later on they're going to get some post

event misinformation here's the question

that planted the misinformation did

another car pass that red Dotson while

it was at the intersection with the

yield sign

I want you to appreciate how clever this

this question is and I think our

magician will appreciate it too

you think this is about whether another

car passed and you're thinking about

that part of the question and well

you're thinking about it I slip in the

information that it was a yield sign

it invades you like a trojan horse

because you don't even detect that it's

coming and later on lots and lots of

people will tell us they saw a yield

sign at the intersection not a stop sign

we've done these kinds of misinformation

studies with people who experience

naturally upsetting events not these

staged or simulated events we've planted

misinformation in the minds for example

of soldiers who are learning what it's

going to be like for them when they are

if then if and when they are captured as

prisoners of war and these horrific

experiences that are done for a good

reason

can be manipulated with post-event

information

so now I've treated you to a quick

summary of about 50 years of work on

something that we call the

misinformation effect there's a kind of

a cartoon drawing you expose people to

misinformation you put them in a misled

condition it lowers their memory

performance and and why is that

important it's important because out

there in the real world misinformation

is everywhere we get it when we talk to

other people we get it when we're

interrogated by somebody who maybe has

an agenda and even inadvertently

suggests things that aren't true we get

it when we pick up newspapers or online

news and we're exposed to some

misleading information

well at some point during this process

of studying misinformation I Came Upon

an even more extreme kind of memory

problem false memory problem it turns

out particularly in the 90s people were

going into Psychotherapy with one kind

of problem maybe anxiety maybe

depression and they were coming out of

this Psychotherapy with a different

problem they had a belief and these

memories of having been traumatized as

children sometimes in Satanic rituals

where they were forced into all kinds of

horrible activities animal sacrifice

baby Breeding baby sacrifice the FBI

investigated in many many of these

claims and never found any kind of

corroboration

so I wanted to study the process by

which people could

could develop these what we now call

Rich false memories and this old

Paradigm that we had developed where we

could turn a stop sign into a yield sign

I mean it just wasn't going to cut it

I needed to develop a new procedure

something that's now called the rich

Falls memory procedure where there's no

event to begin with but we're going to

apply people with suggestions about the

past and we'll see what they then

remember about their childhood or their

more recent past

our first study planted a false memory

that when you were about five or six

years old you were lost in a shopping

mall in a particular place with a

particular people there that you were

frightened and crying ultimately rescued

by an elderly person and put back

together with your family

after we publish these findings other

scientists came forward and and we too

and planted false memories of things

that would be more traumatic or

upsetting if they actually had happened

like you nearly drowned and had to be

rescued by a lifeguard or you were

attacked by a vicious animal

or you committed a crime as a teenager

and it was serious enough that the

police came to investigate all of these

things planted in the minds of otherwise

healthy ordinary adults

how often does this happen

a mega analysis that analyzed data from

a collection of these studies

there were something like 423 subjects

who at this point had been subjected to

these manipulations and about 30 percent

of the time people developed a false

memory and an additional 23 percent of

the time they developed a false belief

that this had happened to them even

though they didn't have that sense of

recollection

we've shown that these false memories

have consequences for people if I plant

a false memory in somebody that they got

sick eating a particular food as a child

they're not so interested in eating that

food we did this with hard-boiled eggs

we did this with Pickles we did this

with strawberry ice cream and we've even

put Foods in front of people and if they

develop a false belief or false memory

they don't eat as much of these

offending Foods

kind of a nice dieting technique I I

think here but

so you may have lots of questions about

all this like well is there any way to

tell the difference between a true

memory and a false one

maybe true memories are more emotional

than false ones but we found no false

memories can be felt with just as much

emotion

how about the brain if we could do some

kind of neuroimaging would the neural

signals be different for a true memory

and a false memory we explored this with

functional magnetic resonance imaging

and the overwhelming finding is the

similarity

in the neural signals for True memories

and false memories

do you need this kind of deception this

sort of Trojan Horse deception and the

answer to that is no we can plant these

false memories in all kinds of ways

without any deception and our our recent

work on push polls I I think illustrates

this to some extent you know these

push-pulls maybe well first of all you

know what polling is because we get

annoyed sometimes when the phone rings

and somebody wants to know how we're

going to vote

um well a push-pull is

masquerading as a legitimate technique

for gathering information but really

what the caller wants is to slip some

information into your mind an actual

example

would it make any difference in terms of

how you plan to vote if I told you that

John McCain had fathered an illegitimate

black child

a push-pull that was actually done would

it make any difference in terms of your

willingness to vote for Obama if I told

you he was really lenient on sex

offenders

well we've now studied this push polling

with my Irish collaborators we gave

people information about

a politician a female politician

background information or education or

policies and so on and afterwards we're

going to use a push poll and we'll find

out whether it affects their willingness

to vote for her and their memory about

her I mean the push-pull was very simple

if I told you that this politician had

been accused of cheating on her income

tax or we might even make it a little

more elaborate and talk about the ways

in which she was accused of cheating on

her income tax and what we found is the

push poll not only affected the way

people said they the likelihood they

would be to vote for this person but

they also started to remember that she

had committed tax fraud

so you know this mind technology really

raises a whole bunch of ethical

questions when should we use this

technology if ever and

when and how are we going to regulate it

so when I look into the future

uh well the the short-term future we're

now able to doctor photographs and so

many of us can that's another Nifty way

to plant false memories just expose

people to doctored photographs we've

done this a number of times and things

are going to get even worse with deep

fake technology that is going to get

into the hands of so many more people

and take us Way Beyond that original

example where you could make Barack

Obama look like he was saying and doing

anything you wanted him to say and do

but it was really the speech and

activities of of an actor

think about with AI

the amount of push polling for example

that would be possible

so I started here by asking you

could I make you remember

could I pour these ideas into your mind

could I make you remember that you were

attacked by a vicious animal if you

weren't that you committed a crime as a

teenager if you didn't that you cheated

in a card game when you didn't I didn't

talk about that work some great work

coming out of Britain all of these

things have been planted in the minds of

otherwise healthy happy adults yes

so I've got one take-home message if

I've learned anything from 50 years of

working on memory and memory Distortion

it's this that just because somebody

tells you something and they say it with

a lot of confidence just because they

give you a lot of detail about it just

because they cry when they tell you the

story it doesn't mean that it really

happened you need independent

corroboration to know whether you're

dealing with an authentic memory or one

that's a product of some other process

not quite I'm not quite thank you I I

was going to end there but um I've got

19 seconds so I'm going to share my uh

favorite quote from Dolly who once said

the difference between true memories and

false memories is like it's like Jewels

uh it's uh the false ones that seem the

most real and the most brilliant if I

could meet Saul which I I can't because

he's died I can't yet anyhow

um I I would have to say yeah you know

you weren't quite right it's not that

the false ones

are more brilliant and more real than

than the true ones but they are equally

real and equally brilliant

thank you for your attention thank you

hey