Neurophilosophy and free will - Patricia Churchland

Summary

The script explores the concept of free will and self-control in the context of punishment, referencing social mammals and human societies. It delves into the evolution of criminal law, the necessity for intent and knowledge in assigning responsibility, and the philosophical debate on free will's existence due to the brain's causal nature. The discussion also touches on the neurobiology of self-control, addiction, and adolescent behavior, suggesting that understanding these aspects is crucial for developing self-control and informing criminal law.

Takeaways

• 🐒 Punishment structures exist in social mammal societies, including chimpanzees and baboons, to maintain group stability by addressing violators who assault others or undermine the group.
• 📚 The development of criminal law reflects a societal effort to determine when punishment is appropriate, often based on the individual's knowledge, intent, and control over their actions.
• 🧠 Philosophical and scientific discussions on free will question whether humans are truly in control of their actions, considering the brain as a causal machine influenced by antecedent conditions.
• 🦊 Self-control is a learned behavior observed in mammals, including the ability to defer gratification, cancel actions, and suppress impulses, which is influenced by the basal ganglia and reward structures.
• 🧬 There are genetic differences that affect an individual's capacity for self-control, which can be studied through experiments, such as those involving rats and their ability to defer gratification.
• 🧠 The neurobiology of addiction is closely tied to self-control, with drugs causing specific physical changes in the reward system, leading to a cycle of addiction and anhedonia.
• 🚫 Adolescents exhibit unique risk-taking behaviors, which may be influenced by their neurobiological development and social context, requiring further research to understand the underlying mechanisms.
• 🔬 The adolescent brain's approach to self-control may differ in various domains, with potential implications for understanding risky behaviors in groups and the development of self-control in children.
• 💉 The impact of drugs on self-control can be profound, as seen in addiction studies, where stress hormones and anhedonic responses play a significant role in the cycle of substance abuse.
• 🏛 While the understanding of self-control and free will is evolving, the speaker does not foresee major changes in criminal law as a direct result of these neurobiological insights.
• 🤔 The problem of free will, especially in the context of the developing child and the criminal law, is an intriguing area of study that may offer insights into self-control and its implications for society.

Q & A

What is the central question discussed in the script regarding social mammals and humans?

The central question discussed is when it is appropriate to punish, with a focus on understanding the structures for punishment in social mammals and the development of criminal law in human societies.

Why is the concept of free will considered important in the context of punishment?

Free will is important because it is traditionally associated with being in control and being responsible for one's actions, which are key considerations in determining appropriate punishment.

What is the current philosophical debate regarding free will and the brain as a causal machine?

The debate revolves around whether free will can exist if the brain is a causal machine, with decisions and choices potentially being the result of prior conditions and brain processes.

How does the script suggest that the concept of self-control is related to the issue of free will?

The script suggests that understanding self-control, which is a capacity known to exist in mammals and is developed through causal processes, can provide insights into the nature of free will.

What role do the basal ganglia and reward structures play in the development of self-control?

The basal ganglia and reward structures are involved in learning and reinforcing self-control behaviors, as demonstrated by the example of young foxes learning from their mothers.

What does the script suggest about the genetic differences in animals' ability to exercise self-control?

The script suggests that there are genetic differences that can affect an animal's capacity for self-control, as indicated by research from Trevor Robbins' lab in Cambridge.

How does the script describe the experimental paradigm for studying self-control in rats?

The script describes an experimental paradigm where rats learn to defer gratification by waiting for a larger reward after a delay, which helps measure their self-control abilities.

What is the relationship between self-control and the neurobiology of addiction?

The neurobiology of addiction is closely related to self-control as addiction involves changes in the reward system and can undermine self-control, as seen in the anhedonic response following substance use.

Why is the adolescent brain particularly of interest in the context of self-control and risk-taking behavior?

The adolescent brain is of interest because adolescents, especially in groups, tend to be risk-takers, which suggests that there may be unique neurobiological factors influencing self-control during this developmental stage.

What are some potential implications of understanding the neurobiology of self-control for the criminal law?

While the script does not foresee major changes in the criminal law, understanding the neurobiology of self-control could potentially influence how certain issues are addressed in criminal courts, especially as it relates to responsibility and punishment.

How does the script suggest that the adolescent brain might differ in terms of self-control in different domains?

The script suggests that adolescents can exhibit high levels of self-control in one domain while being less controlled in another, indicating that the neurobiology of these differences is not yet fully understood.

Outlines

00:00

🐒 Social Punishment and Free Will

The first paragraph discusses the concept of punishment within social structures, particularly among primates and humans, and the development of criminal law to determine appropriate punishment. It delves into the philosophical debate surrounding free will, questioning whether individuals are truly in control of their actions. The speaker suggests that the capacity for self-control, which is evident in mammals and is influenced by the basal ganglia, might be a factor in determining responsibility. The influence of external factors like addiction and the brain's causal nature on self-control and free will are also explored.

05:04

🧠 Self-Control and the Brain's Reward System

This paragraph focuses on the scientific understanding of self-control, particularly in mammals, and the genetic differences that affect an individual's ability to exercise it. The speaker references an experiment by Trevor Robbins that measures self-control in rats, highlighting the neural circuitry involved, including the basal ganglia and frontal brain regions. The paragraph also touches on how self-control can be compromised by factors such as motivation, hunger, exhaustion, and drugs, with a deeper look into the neurobiology of addiction and its effects on the brain's reward system.

10:07

🚫 Adolescent Risk-Taking and Self-Control

The third paragraph examines the role of self-control in adolescent behavior, noting the tendency for adolescents to engage in riskier activities, especially in groups. It discusses research by Sarah-Jane Blakemore on adolescent mice and their propensity for risk-taking and substance use. The speaker suggests that understanding the adolescent brain's self-control mechanisms is crucial for comprehending why young people might engage in dangerous behaviors, such as joining gangs or participating in violent activities.

15:09

🏛 The Implications of Self-Control in Criminal Law

In the final paragraph, the speaker contemplates the implications of the neurobiological understanding of self-control for the criminal law system. While acknowledging that the current understanding may not lead to immediate changes in the law, the paragraph suggests that biological discoveries could potentially influence how criminal courts address certain issues. The speaker emphasizes the importance of self-control for individuals to lead responsible adult lives and avoid future troubles.

Keywords

💡Punishment

Punishment in the context of the video refers to the act of imposing a penalty or sanction for a wrongdoing, especially in social groups such as chimpanzees and baboons, and in human societies. It is a central theme as it ties into the discussion of when it is appropriate to inflict punishment and the development of criminal law to regulate this. The script mentions that punishment structures exist to maintain group stability by dealing with violators who undermine it.

💡Violators

Violators are individuals who commit acts that are considered harmful or disruptive to the social order, such as assault or behavior that undermines group stability. The term is used to describe those who are subject to punishment in various social mammal groups and in human societies, highlighting the need for mechanisms to address antisocial actions.

💡Criminal Law

Criminal law is the body of law that defines crimes, regulates punishment, and relates to the protection of society at large. In the script, it is discussed as an evolving system that aims to determine when punishment is appropriate, usually requiring the person to have knowingly and willingly committed the act, which ties into the broader discussion of responsibility and free will.

💡Free Will

Free will is the power of making choices that are neither determined by natural causality nor predestined by fate or divine will. The script explores the philosophical and scientific debate around whether individuals can truly be in control of their actions, which is central to the concept of responsibility and punishment in criminal law.

💡Self-Control

Self-control is the ability to regulate one's own behavior, emotions, and impulses. The script discusses self-control in various contexts, including the capacity of mammals to exercise restraint in hunting and the development of self-control in young animals, which is crucial for understanding the role of self-control in decision-making and its implications for the concept of free will.

💡Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are clusters of neurons deep in the brain that are involved in motor control, learning, and reward processing. The script mentions the basal ganglia in relation to the development of self-control and the learning process, as well as its role in the neurobiology of addiction.

💡Addiction

Addiction is a complex condition characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli, despite adverse consequences. The script delves into the neurobiological aspects of addiction, particularly how substances like cocaine, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol affect the brain's reward system and self-control.

💡Adolescence

Adolescence is the transitional stage of physical and psychological development from childhood to adulthood. The script discusses the unique risk-taking behaviors associated with adolescence, particularly in groups, and the need to understand the neurobiological differences in self-control during this developmental stage.

💡Neurobiology

Neurobiology is the study of the nervous system and the brain, including its structure, function, development, genetic makeup, and impact on behavior. The script frequently refers to neurobiological research to explore the biological underpinnings of self-control, addiction, and the development of the adolescent brain.

💡Deferring Gratification

Deferring gratification is the act of delaying immediate rewards in favor of long-term benefits. The script uses the example of rats in an experiment to illustrate the concept of self-control and the ability to defer gratification, which is a key aspect of understanding willpower and decision-making.

💡Anhedonia

Anhedonia refers to the inability to feel pleasure or a diminished interest in activities that are usually enjoyable. The script discusses anhedonia in the context of addiction, describing how repeated substance use can lead to a prolonged period of reduced pleasure, which can contribute to the cycle of addiction.

Highlights

The importance of understanding when it is appropriate to punish in social mammals, including humans.

Existence of punishment structures in chimpanzee and baboon societies for violators who undermine group stability.

Criminal law's evolution to become more acceptable and to punish only when appropriate.

The necessity for a person to have performed an action knowingly and with control to be held responsible under criminal law.

The philosophical debate on free will and its association with being in control of one's actions.

The challenge to free will posed by the brain as a causal machine and the determinism of choices and decisions.

The differing views on whether free will can exist given the causal nature of the brain.

The speaker's perspective on free will, suggesting a focus on the degree of free will rather than its existence.

The scientific understanding of self-control in mammals and its development as a causal process.

The genetic differences between animals that can exercise self-control and those that cannot.

Trevor Robbins' lab's experiments on self-control and the ability to defer gratification in rats.

The neurobiological changes in the reward system associated with addiction to substances like cocaine, heroin, nicotine, and alcohol.

The anhedonic response following substance use and its connection to stress hormones in addiction.

The adolescent brain's propensity for risk-taking, especially in groups.

Sarah Jane Blakemore's research on adolescent mice and their increased risk-taking behavior.

The potential implications of understanding adolescent self-control for societal issues like gang involvement or violent behavior.

The speaker's view on the potential impact of neurobiological research on criminal law and self-control.

Transcripts

a question that's really important to

all social mammals and it's certainly

important to humans is when it's

appropriate to punish and we see that

there are structures for punishment of

violators in chimpanzees societies in

baboon societies by violators I mean

those who assault others or who behave

in such a way to undermine the stability

of the group and we also know of course

that in human societies this is the case

and in many instances people have

reflected on the underlying

acceptability of when to punish and in

consequence the criminal law has

developed in many many places in small

groups in large groups in whole nations

and the criminal law evolves over time

to try to become more and more

acceptable to punish only when it's

appropriate and that usually means that

the person must have actually performed

the action he must have actually known

what he was doing and known that it was

wrong and he must have been in control

and normally philosophers and others

associate this idea of being in control

and hence responsible for your action

they associate that with free will so

for example if someone is not in control

because he was pushed let us say then

the criminal law usually would would

take that into account and say well the

person didn't really do it himself he

wasn't really in control but

philosophers a kind of backed up from

that and asked the question well are we

ever really in control if as we think

that choices and decisions or the

outcome of the physical brain and how it

works that probably seems to mean that

our decisions and choices are caused by

ants

conditions of the brain and so people

have said well can you ever be

considered really in control if your

brain is a causal machine so that kind

of is the current take on the question

of free will

now some philosophers and some

scientists have taken the view that free

will cannot exist because the brain is

essentially a causal machine that in a

certain very deep sense we should not

ever hold anybody responsible or at

least we're never truly justified in

holding someone responsible even if they

were awake they knew what they were

doing and they intended to do it because

if you think about that intention the

philosophers argued the intention was

caused by antecedent events my own view

is a little different I want to say well

what fewer free will should we have I

mean what would allow for saying that

someone was responsible would it be

better if that the intention was totally

uncalled it just sort of sprang into

being

would that make the action free and most

philosophers recognize that no that

would not either in my own sort of

thinking about this issue I've been very

influenced by what we know

scientifically through experiments about

the nature of self control and we do

know that all mammals have the capacity

for varying degrees of self control so

if you're a fox and you're hunting the

rabbit you better exercise self control

you have to wait for the right moment

you have to creep up silently and we

know that the young foxes don't have

good self control because the young fox

will just boom terror after the after

the rabbit the rabbit flees he gets

nothing he learns through that

experience hit the basal ganglia the

reward structures learned not

do that and so through time the young

fox pop learns to behave like its mom

and its cautious and its careful and it

waits and it waits until the appropriate

time the forks pup also learns

self-control in other conditions and

here again it will imitate the mother it

will learn to live very very very

quietly when there is a big predator

like a bear about and again this engages

or this changes and Tunes up the basal

ganglia the reward structures in these

and this really quite ancient part of

the brain so self-control is something

that we know that all mammals have and

acquiring self-control or developing

self-control is itself a causal process

and there seem to also be genetic

differences between animals that can

exercise self-control and animals that

can't so let me give you an example and

this is from trevor robbins lab in

Cambridge so he wanted to study

self-control and he was interested in

having a good experimental paradigm for

that now we normally think as he pointed

out that self-control involves the

capacity to defer gratification like the

baby fox waiting it also involves the

capacity to cancel an action so that for

example if you're about to go into a

parking space and a child runs into that

space you will put on the brakes and

stop that's cancelling an action I can

cancel an action as I move towards my

coffee cup it also involves the

suppression of certain antisocial or or

unsocial impulses so trevor robbins in

his lab wanted to figure out a way to

measure self-controlled deferring

gratification in rats so first of all

what they did was they put a food tower

in the rats space and the rat comes into

its space he learns very quickly that if

he knows pokes

he gets a pellet which he wants because

he's hungry now after a while you put in

a second tower and in the second demo

he's interested he explores he knows

pokes he gets four pellets better and he

learns them to do that so where's the

deferring of gratification so you can

introduce a delay between when the rat

nose pokes and when the fora pellets

come can the rat wait or will it not be

able to defer gratification and go for

the single pellet and what we find is

that some rats can wait and then wait

and wait and other rats come on they

said it's like they sort of yeah you

know give up and go to the other one and

the circuitry underlying self-control

has consequently been quite well studied

in the rodent and so we know that the

circuitry involves structures in the

very front of the brain but also these

reward and reinforcement learning

structures in the basal ganglia the

precise nature of that relationship is

not understood because we know that

self-control can also be affected by

motivation if I'm very frightened I may

not defer gratification or if I'm very

tired I may behave in a slightly

different way and so forth so how the

brain negotiates self-control and

motivation and so on is not really well

understood so one way to think about the

nature of the freewill problem has to do

in fact with understanding the causality

that underlies self-control now we know

that self-control can be undermined not

just by things like extreme hunger and

extreme exhaustion it can be undermined

by drugs so a huge effort around the

world has gone in to understand

the neurobiology of addiction and the

main addictive chemicals that people

have studied involved cocaine heroin

nicotine and alcohol and what is known

now is that I mean it's going to be a

very complex story and I think only part

of the story is in place but we know

that there are very specific physical

changes in the reward system in the

basal ganglia and it sometimes looks as

though those very specific changes

actually are quite permanent but we know

for example that if someone is addicted

to nicotine that in certain very

specific kinds of experiments for

example when they evaluate what they

could have done in a task

unrelated to smoking but where they

could have done something in a task

instead of something else they're poor

at making those evaluations and so

understanding addiction is very very

closely related to understanding the

nature of self-control and here's

another important part of what has come

into focus and understanding addiction

and that is that initially someone will

get a hedonic response that is you get

high or you feel great from binge taking

the substance let's say cocaine but

always after the hedonic response

there's a bit of a dip normally but

after someone takes cocaine again and

again what we see is that hedonic

response is not very high the anhedonic

response is quite long deep and it's

protracted in time well what causes the

anhedonic response that follows and the

answer seems to be stress hormones go

way up now you know what it's like to

feel anxious to feel stressed it's

uncomfortable so what does the attic do

when they're in this anhedonic try

that goes on for a long time they take

more which gives them an even lower

hedonic response and an even longer dip

into the anatomic response and this

profile I think has helped us really

understand sort of the conscious

experience of addicts but it's also

really helped us to understand the

nature of addiction itself why there is

this anhedonic response remains a puzzle

but that does seem to be just how it is

it's how it is in rats and how it is in

monkeys and it seems to be also how it

is in humans now there are other domains

where we wonder about self control and

one of them of course has to do with

adolescence because we know that

adolescents especially in groups tend to

be big risk takers there's something

about being together in a group and

being an adolescent that motivates

risk-taking so there are scientists who

are now looking at this both

behaviorally and at a deeper level in

the nature of the brain and one of them

is Sarah Jane Blakemore in England one

of the things that she reports is that

mice they have a very very fast

development relative to humans as you

know but there are one or two days where

they are adolescents before they

actually become adults so people have

tested their risk-taking behavior during

that adolescent period so this is mice

and one of the things that they find is

that adolescent mice will run on an

elevated maze which normally adult and

baby rats do not like to do they fear

falling off but adolescent rats

especially in the company of others are

quite happy to run an elevated maze they

will take a risk it's also been found

that adolescent mice will binge drink

alcohol if given the opportunity

especially when there are other

around so I think what these results

suggest but it's only a suggestion is

that there is something about

risk-taking in the adolescent brain that

we really need to understand and I think

in the present context in the present

context of the political world that we

live in it also motivates us to want to

ask why young men in particular but not

only young men are willing to take these

really extraordinary risks to join a

motorcycle gang or to join Isis or to go

off with their mates and beat up others

other soccer fans which we know that

they do so that I think is a very

important development in neurobiological

research is understanding the respects

in which the adolescent brain with

regard to certain features of

self-control are a little different and

I should add here that of course

adolescents can be very highly

controlled in one domain and somewhat

less controlled in another domain and I

don't think we really understand the

neurobiology of those differences and

and what makes for those differences I

think the problem of free will is a very

interesting problem especially as it

arises in the context of the developing

child because we want a child to have

self-control that's adequate to his

adult life and we want people to have

self-control so that they don't get into

all kinds of trouble later in life but

we also have to understand it in the

context of the criminal law I don't

myself for see major changes in the

criminal law as a result of this but of

course these are very early days and

it's possible that there will be ways of

of addressing certain issues that come

before the criminal court through

discoveries in biology but I haven't

myself seen any

thing yet that really motivates those

those kinds of changes