Complex Numbers in Quantum Mechanics
Summary
TLDR量子力学是一个复杂且令人困惑的学科,这部分原因在于量子世界中存在一些难以想象的奇异现象。量子力学之所以复杂,还因为其中充满了复杂的数字,尤其是复数的使用。视频脚本解释了为什么在量子力学中使用复数是有意义的,尽管一开始这可能令人困惑。复数可以看作是二维的数字,它们不仅包含大小,还包含方向,这与实数系统不同。视频通过波的概念来解释复数,展示了如何使用复数来表示波形,并解释了复数的加法和乘法如何与波的干涉相关。此外,还提到了复数在量子力学中的其他应用,如量子谐振子和量子场论。最后,视频强调了理解复数在量子力学中的重要性,并鼓励观众继续探索这一领域。
Takeaways
- 🧮 **量子力学的复杂性**:量子力学之所以复杂,部分原因是它涉及的现象难以想象,并且使用了大量的复数。
- 🤔 **复数的必要性**:复数在量子力学中用于描述具有幅度和相位的波函数,这些是实数无法充分描述的。
- 📈 **复数与波的关系**:复数可以表示为具有固定幅度和变化相位的波,这与量子力学中的波函数概念紧密相关。
- 🌀 **复数的二维性**:复数的二维性来自它们可以表示波的正负以及所有中间状态,这与实数的二元性(正或负)形成对比。
- 📐 **复数的几何意义**:复数可以被视为复平面上的点,其中实部和虚部分别代表幅度和相位。
- 🔍 **复数与波的叠加**:通过复数的加法和乘法,可以模拟波的干涉和衍射现象,这对于理解和计算量子系统中的粒子行为至关重要。
- 🌟 **欧拉公式的应用**:欧拉公式(e^{i\theta} = \cos(\theta) + i\sin(\theta))提供了复数和三角函数之间的联系,并在量子力学中广泛使用。
- 🚀 **量子力学中的动态现象**:通过复数的叠加和干涉,可以观察到量子系统中的概率密度随时间变化的动态现象。
- 🧲 **电磁学与量子电动力学**:在量子电动力学中,波函数的局部U(1)对称性意味着电磁学,这是通过复数的相位变化来描述的。
- 🌌 **高维复数波函数**:在量子场论中,可以使用高维复数波函数作为傅里叶基底来构建更复杂的波函数,满足量子力学方程。
- 📖 **学习复数的重要性**:熟悉复数需要时间和实践,但它们是理解和应用量子力学的基础。
Q & A
量子力学为什么使用复数而不是实数?
-量子力学使用复数是因为复数提供了一种两维的数学结构,这与量子系统中的波函数特性相吻合。复数不仅包含大小(幅度),还包含方向(相位),这使得它们能够描述量子态的相位变化,而这是实数所不能做到的。
复数的主要特征是什么?
-复数的主要特征是它们是两维的,具有大小(幅度)和方向(相位)。复数可以看作是实数(正数和负数)的概括,允许数字不仅在正负数轴上,还可以在两者之间的所有数轴上。
如何用复数表示波?
-复数可以用来表示波,因为它们能够捕捉波的幅度和相位。一个复数波形可以表示为 e^(iΘ) 的形式,其中 Θ 是一个关于位置和时间的函数。复数的实部和虚部分别对应于波的实部和虚部,可以描述波的干涉现象。
欧拉公式是什么?它与复数波有什么联系?
-欧拉公式是 e^(iΘ) = cos(Θ) + i*sin(Θ),它表明了复指数函数与三角函数之间的关系。在复数波的上下文中,欧拉公式提供了一种将复数波分解为其实部和虚部的方法,从而更好地理解波的行为。
复数加法和乘法的物理意义是什么?
-复数加法可以模拟波的叠加,包括构造性干涉和破坏性干涉。复数乘法则涉及到波的幅度乘法和相位角的加法,这可以用来描述波的相位变化。在量子力学中,这些操作与粒子的波函数演化密切相关。
为什么在量子力学中,复数的实部和虚部都重要?
-在量子力学中,复数的实部和虚部都重要,因为它们共同描述了量子态的完整信息。实部和虚部的平方和给出了概率密度,这是预测实验结果的关键。此外,虚部对于描述量子态的相位和干涉效应至关重要。
量子谐振子中的基态和激发态如何通过复数叠加形成粒子的波函数?
-在量子谐振子中,基态和激发态的波函数可以相加形成叠加态,这个叠加态随时间演化会产生变化的概率密度。通过复数叠加,可以得到一个随时间变化的波函数,这反映了量子系统的动态行为。
为什么说复数在量子场论中扮演了基本的构成角色?
-复数在量子场论中通过平面波和量子化的场的叠加,构成了复杂的量子场。平面波作为基本的波函数解,可以叠加形成满足量子场方程的更复杂的波函数,这是量子场论中粒子创造和湮灭过程的基础。
复数的两维性在物理空间中代表什么?
-复数的两维性并不代表物理空间中的两个独立方向。它们代表的是波函数的幅度和相位,这两个维度描述了波的完整特性。在量子力学中,复数的这种两维性与波函数的干涉和衍射现象直接相关。
为什么说复数在量子力学中是描述粒子状态的理想工具?
-复数能够描述量子态的幅度和相位,这对于捕捉量子系统的动态特性至关重要。复数的这种特性使得它们能够以一种简洁和统一的方式描述量子态的叠加、干涉和演化,这些都是量子力学的核心概念。
量子力学中,波函数的模方代表什么?
-在量子力学中,波函数的模方(即波函数与其共轭的乘积)代表概率密度,它描述了在某个位置或某个状态下找到粒子的概率。这是量子力学中概率解释的核心,用于预测实验结果。
Outlines
🤔 量子力学与复数的困惑
第一段主要讨论了量子力学的复杂性,特别是复数在量子力学中的应用。作者表达了最初对于为什么物理理论中使用复数而非实数的困惑,并解释了复数的二维性质,即复数不仅包含大小(magnitude)还包含方向(direction)。通过类比波的概念,说明了复数如何用来描述波的动态变化,以及复数如何通过欧拉公式与三角函数联系起来。
📐 复数的数学操作及其物理意义
第二段深入探讨了复数的加法和乘法运算,并说明了这些数学操作如何与波的干涉现象相联系。作者通过动画展示了复数加法的几何意义,并解释了复数乘法如何改变一个波的相位。此外,还讨论了如何通过复数来表示波的叠加,并引入了傅里叶分析的概念,说明了复数在量子力学中的应用,如量子谐振子中的基态和激发态的叠加。
🌈 复数与波函数的可视化
第三段通过一个二维平面波的例子,展示了复数在量子力学中如何用于描述波函数。作者指出,尽管复数是二维的,但它们并不对应于物理空间中的某个方向,而是描述波在空间中的振荡。此外,还讨论了平面波在量子力学中的应用,如作为傅里叶基底构建更复杂的波函数,以及在量子场论中的重要性。
🔍 复数在量子力学中的深层含义
第四段总结了视频的主要内容,并强调了复数在量子力学中的直观理解和深层含义。作者指出,复数不仅仅是数学工具,它们与波函数的性质紧密相关,如量子叠加和概率密度。此外,还提到了量子电动力学中的一个重要概念,即波函数的局部U(1)对称性如何暗示电磁学的存在,这是一个深刻的物理概念,将在未来的视频中进一步探讨。
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Highlights
量子力学是一个复杂且令人困惑的学科,部分原因在于量子世界中确实存在一些难以想象的奇异现象。
量子力学之所以复杂,部分原因是因为到处都有复杂的数字,尤其是复数的使用。
复数被定义为二维数字,这在初次接触时可能看起来很不合理,但它们是量子力学中我们想要使用的数字。
复数可以看作是正负二元性的概括,允许数字不仅在正或负数轴上,还可以在两者之间的所有数轴上。
复数不是用于计数,而是用于捕捉波动现象,如海浪、声波或光波。
通过欧拉公式 e^(iΘ) = cos(Θ) + i*sin(Θ),我们可以将复数波形视为具有恒定振幅和变化相位的波。
复数的加法和乘法与波的干涉直接相关,这在量子力学中非常重要。
通过泰勒级数展开,可以证明 e^(iΘ) 确实是 cos(Θ) + i*sin(Θ),这有助于理解复数波形。
复数乘法通过乘以它们的振幅和相位角的和来实现,这在量子力学中用于表示波函数的相位变化。
量子力学中的波函数可以表示为不同能量本征函数的叠加,这些叠加会产生随时间变化的概率密度。
平面波是量子力学中常见的解,它们可以作为傅里叶基底来构建更复杂的波函数。
在量子场论中,平面波在二次量子化中起着基本的构成作用,允许构建量子场理论。
复数的二维性并不是指物理空间中的任何方向,而是指波的上下或左右等方向。
复数与其共轭的乘积总是落在实数线上,这在量子力学中用于表示波函数的幅度平方。
在量子力学中,波函数的幅度平方 PSI*PSI 与找到粒子的概率密度有关。
量子电动力学中,波函数的局部 U(1) 对称性意味着电磁学,这是一个深刻而美丽的概念。
理解和熟练掌握复数需要时间,通过绘制方程式和解决问题来逐渐建立直觉。
Transcripts
quantum mechanics is a notoriously
complicated and confusing subject and
part of that is for good reason I mean
there really are these crazy phenomena
happening in the quantum worlds that are
challenging to imagine but uh one of the
reasons quantum mechanics is complicated
is that there are all these complex
numbers all over the place and at first
when you're getting into the subject
it's very confusing why are we using
complex numbers what do they mean why
can't we use real numbers isn't this
physics not math what why do we use
these crazy numbers right so that was
the source of confusion for me at least
for quite a long period of time and then
one day it clicked and I finally
understood and I was like oh okay yeah
actually that complex numbers are what
we want to use in quantum mechanics so
what are the complex numbers anyway
I think the most defining feature of the
complex numbers is that they're a
two-dimensional number and that seems
scandalous but if you've been using the
real number line then you're already
kind of complicit in using a
two-dimensional number system sort of
because when you write a real number you
write its magnitude but you also assign
it to one of the two number Rays either
positive or negative
so you already have this sense of
magnitude and direction in your number
system it's just that you only have two
options for the direction positive or
negative so the direction dimension of
the real numbers is just a discrete
binary thing rather than a continuous
thing
and all the complex numbers really are
is a generalization of that positive
negative binary that is the complex
numbers can be regarded as a
generalization of positivity and
negativity so that a number can be not
only on either the positive or negative
number Ray but also all of the number
rays in between
this is a very strange concept the first
time you see it
now if you're mostly used to using
numbers to count things this seems like
an affront to reason because after all
if you consider the number two for
example so you could have positive two
you could have negative two
but with the complex numbers you could
also have this two that's just somewhere
in this space of this somewhere in this
circle that has radius two the number
with magnitude 2 in the complex plane
can be at any one of these points
and that doesn't seem right because
you'll notice when two is up just purely
pointing straight up then it's neither
positive nor negative and yet it's still
two it still has the amplitude of two
uh that doesn't really fit into our
normal intuitions about counting right
it doesn't feel like it makes sense okay
but complex numbers are not about
counting in this kind of way
let's look at this
this is a wave what kind of wave I don't
know could be the surface of the ocean
it could be a sound wave where the
height represents the air pressure it
could be a wave of light just flopping
around in the electromagnetic field
whatever it is it's just a wave now this
is a very clean and pure wave that I'm
using to illustrate the point but it's a
wave nonetheless
so how can we use numbers to capture
what this wave is
well the first and most obvious thing is
if the wave is above the average level
if the wave is up we'll say it's a
positive number and if the wave is down
we'll say it's a negative number so
let's go ahead and color it in positive
and negative all right fair enough
that's not wrong
but let's pause time for a second
now look here
right at the point where the wave is
zero and going down
is that point really zero or does that
point exist in a harmonious Continuum
with the rest of the wave yeah it's zero
now but it's part of a bigger picture
and you know it's just gonna be changing
soon you know it'll soon be non-zero so
is that really zero in the same way that
a flat line is zero or does it somehow
have an amplitude even though it's also
kind of zero at the same time so do you
see an analogy between this thing that's
kind of zero and kind of not zero and
the example we were looking at earlier
when the two was pointing straight up
and it was also kind of zero and kind of
not zero now what's more look at this
point over here where it's also zero but
now it's going up all of the same
observations apply it's kind of zero but
it's not really it has some energy to it
even though it's zero it kind of is kind
of isn't so now we can see that this
number here is the opposite of the
previous number that we were looking at
because the previous one is on its way
down and this one is on its way up
let's transform our perspective and use
complex numbers to represent this wave
[Music]
this is what a complex wave looks like
notice that the amplitude is constant
and it's just the phase that's changing
so it's not moving up and down like the
other wave now this is a very pure wave
this is a wave of the form e to the I
Theta where in this case Theta is some
function of X and some function of time
now let's plot the real part of this
complex number that is how far left or
right the number is in the complex plane
and you'll see that we can recover that
wave we were looking at earlier
let's show the imaginary component of
this complex wave that is how far up and
down the wave is in the complex plane
and you'll notice here we get a wave
that looks very similar to the real part
but it's out of phase such that it takes
on maximum and minimum values when the
real part is at zero and vice versa by
the way the function e to the I Theta is
equal to cosine of theta plus I times
the sine of theta where I is the
imaginary unit this equation is known as
Euler's formula well one of his many
formulas and it gives us another way of
thinking about what this complex wave is
when you're first getting into complex
numbers you'll probably think about
Euler's formula as the definition of
what e to the I Theta is but as you
become more comfortable with e to the I
Theta you'll eventually just see that as
the wave and then the cosine and sine is
a way of splitting it up into the real
Parts in the imaginary part by the way
let me just quickly say on the topic of
the imaginary part imaginary numbers are
a misnomer okay they're just as real or
just as imaginary as the real number
members the complex numbers are
numerical structure they're a holistic
thing you know it doesn't make any sense
to say imaginary and real but whatever
this is the terminology you're stuck
with so it is what it is ultimately it's
a consequence of the fact that the
imaginary numbers were named before they
were understood and that's I think one
of Descartes greatest mistakes well that
in dualism but um anyway where were we
what are we talking about here to
understand why it's useful to be able to
represent a wave as a constant amplitude
complex number whose phase is changing
we'll have to take a look at the nature
of complex addition multiplication and
how this relates to wave interference
we'll do that in a moment but first I
want to make a quick comment about why
is it e to the I Theta gives us this
wave I don't have time in this video to
give a really satisfactory answer but I
can lead you in the right direction so
if you take derivatives of e to the I
Theta and and sine of theta and cosine
of theta you can write these functions
in terms of a Taylor series when you do
that you'll find that e to the I Theta
has a term of theta at every degree
whereas cosine has even terms and sine
has odd terms and if you look closely at
these series you can see that the terms
on the right hand side of the equation
zip together into the terms on the left
hand side of the equation so by taking
Taylor series you can prove to yourself
that in fact e to the I Theta is cosine
of theta plus I sine of theta
okay so that was a bit of a tangent but
I think it's important for you to know
now let's take a look at complex Edition
if we have any two complex numbers we
can add them just like their vectors so
we put them tail to tip or another way
of looking at it is the sum is the
diagonal of the parallelogram so here
I'm showing two complex numbers both of
which have magnitude 2 swinging around
in the complex plane
the complex number between them is their
sum and you'll see that since the
numbers both have magnitude 2 their sum
has a magnitude of anywhere from zero to
four zero when the two numbers are
perfectly out of phase four when the
numbers are perfectly in phase and some
intermediary value when the angles are
kind of in phase and kind of not in
phase and we'll see later how that has a
very close relationship to the idea of
constructive and destructive
interference in Waves by the way here's
the algebraic formula for complex
Edition and that's the same as adding
vectors like the animation shows
now let's let one of those twos become a
little bit longer and you can see a more
General representation of complex
addition and you still see this effect
where sometimes the numbers will align
with each other and will add it's the
magnitude sometimes they'll be
oppositely aligned and they'll sort of
destructively interfere so that's a
general phenomenon whenever you're
adding complex numbers
and we can also multiply any two complex
numbers so to multiply complex numbers
you multiply their amplitudes and you
add their phase angles relative to the
positive real number line so here I'm
showing a couple numbers both with
magnitude two they're swinging around in
the complex plane and I'm also showing
their product you'll notice that since
the two numbers both have magnitude 2
their product will always have magnitude
4 but the phase angle of their product
depends on the sum of the phase angles
of the individual twos and of course
that rule generalizes so any two complex
numbers to multiply them you multiply
their magnitudes and add to their phase
angles that's really useful because what
it means is that if we have a complex
number of unit length but some phase
angle in the plane we can multiply that
by some other complex number to shift
its phase by the unit 1 numbers phase
angle to demonstrate this idea of
rotating the phase of a complex number
by multiplying by a unit length complex
number consider the illustration that's
on your screen now here I have a blue
wave and that's the real part of the
function e to the i x so the classic
complex wave amplitude 1 function you
take the real part and it's basically
it's just cosine of x right now the wave
that's changing colors that's the same
function that's the real part of the
same function except now the function is
multiplied by some complex constant
let's call it a a has magnitude one but
its phase angle is changing so I'm
showing you here the blue line with the
dot at the end that's the number one in
the complex plane right the colorful
line with the dot at the end that's a
that's this unit length complex number
whose phase is swinging around and the
colorful wave that's changing color
that's the real part of the wave that
you get when you multiply by the complex
number a
now let's notice something when a is one
the two numbers overlap and the two
waves are the same
when a is negative one the two waves are
completely opposite so the sign of the
wave is switching at every moment what
was formerly up is now down and so on
but in all those angles in between the
waves are not just the same or not just
totally opposite but they're similar
their phase shifted by some amount
that's not a complete half wavelength
and so in this illustration you can see
how this notion of generalizing
positivity and negativity that we see in
the complex numbers actually has a
genuine natural a very real
interpretation we can see this even more
clearly if we put the sum of the two
waves into this illustration as well
now we can think about addition of waves
in two ways first you can sweep along
the x-axis and just add the value of the
two waves at any point and that gives
you the value of the third wave or you
can add the complex amplitudes of the
Waves you get a resulting complex number
that's the sum of those complex numbers
and then you multiply that by the way of
e to the IX and that gives you the sum
of the two waves so you see there's this
direct one-to-one relationship between
complex addition and the interference of
these waves
if you've studied signal processing then
you know that you can generate an
arbitrary waveform by adding sine waves
and cosine waves in the right amounts
and frequencies while complex numbers
let us create a more unified and
holistic way of doing Fourier analysis
by adding waveforms that are these e to
the i x kind of waves multiplied by a
complex coefficient and then summing
over frequencies and amplitudes in that
basis so the example I'm showing here of
generating a square wave you might
associate that more with like signal
processing or something in quantum
mechanics however we use the idea of
basis functions and superpositions all
the time consider for example the
quantum harmonic oscillator I already
made a video on the quantum harmonic
oscillator so I'm not going to rehash
all of the details here if you want to
see like the hamiltonian and Trojan's
equation and all that good stuff you can
check out that video but what I just
want to point out here is that we can
take this sum of energy eigenfunctions
the ground state and these few excited
States and if we add them all up we can
get the wave function of a particle
that's oscillating in the quantum
harmonic oscillator
and this is just one of the many ways
that these basis functions can be added
but when you look at it one thing to
notice is that if you just look at the
probability densities of each of the
energy eigenstates they're actually
stationary but when you add the
eigenstates because you're adding the
complex numbers and there's that complex
interference going on the subsequent
probability density of the sum of those
States the superposition of those States
is actually this thing that varies in
time
and so here we can see this cool kind of
Dynamics coming out of the Machinery of
complex numbers
my main point in this video is just to
get you familiar with the complex
numbers to show you that ultimately they
come from this notion of waves and we'll
see many examples of complex wave
functions going forward for example I'm
currently working on a video on the
hydrogen atom and so here I'll show you
just a little preview of that we have
the longitudinal component of the
hydrogen energy eigenstates so this is
what you get when you solve the
azimuthal equation you end up with the
hemholz differential equation and you
can derive the fact that hydrogen has
this quantized magnetic number M which
we learn about in chemistry from the
fact that the wave function has to loop
back in on itself as you go around
anyway we'll come back to this later in
the hydrogen video but for now I'd like
to look at a higher dimensional example
of a complex wave function
so for example here's a two-dimensional
plane Wave It's defined in the plane of
your screen it's constant amplitude and
the color represents the phase of the
wave function at every point
I've also superimposed these little
arrows and what the arrows represent is
numbers in the complex plane
now I want to use this to illustrate a
couple of points first when you look at
a picture like this it almost looks like
a vector field and there's a temptation
to think that the complex numbers are
embedded in this two-dimensional space
and that their direction is sort of
pointing in a direction in that space
this is a common misconception and I had
this misconception for a while when I
was learning quantum mechanics because
one of the things that confused me about
complex numbers was they're
two-dimensional right so why
I mean if you have a three-dimensional
wave function for example shouldn't you
have like some kind of three-dimensional
thing like how do you stick a
two-dimensional Arrow at a point in
space how does that even make sense but
I hope that based on everything you've
seen so far you realize that the
two-dimensionality of the complex
numbers actually is not about any
direction in physical space
the fact that the complex numbers are
two-dimensional is the fact that a wave
is up and down or left and right or back
and forth or high pressure low pressure
it's yin and yang when you see that then
the confusion goes away okay so that's
the first point the second point I want
to bring up when it comes to plane waves
is that these things you will see these
all over the place why a couple of
reasons one honestly it's kind of one of
the easiest solutions to all these wave
equations that you'll encounter in
quantum mechanics but also it can be
used as a Fourier basis to construct
these more complicated wave functions
like earlier when we looked at the
square wave and you could see how you
can make an arbitrary waveform by adding
a bunch of waves well if you take a
bunch of plane waves that satisfy for
example the Schrodinger equation or the
Klein Gordon equation or the Drac
equation although in that case you have
byspinner field it's more complicated
but whatever if you have plane waves
that satisfy some differential equation
and you add them you take their
superposition you can create these more
complicated systems that also satisfy
those equations and in fact in Quantum
field Theory the plane waves play a
essential constitutive role in the
second quantization that allows you to
actually make a Quantum field Theory
oh I almost forgot but earlier when we
were looking at the complex
multiplication let's go back to that
picture except now I'm showing you
something special so these are two
complex numbers that have amplitude 2
and their product has amplitude four but
notice this time the two numbers are
complex conjugates of one another that
means that the imaginary component has
flipped sine in other words it's been
mirrored about the real axis and so what
we're seeing here is a number of times
its complex conjugate and the result is
always stuck on the real number line why
is that well add the angles a complex
number and its complex conjugate always
have angles that add up such that you
get back on the real axis and for that
reason you'll often see the expression
PSI star PSI as a way of expressing the
amplitude squared of a complex number in
quantum mechanics PSI star and PSI are
very often the two slices of bread in an
operator sandwich but when you see PSI
star PSI without any operator in between
just think of that as amplitude squared
and by by the way if PSI is a wave
function then PSI star PSI is the
probability density relating to that
wave function so if you want to find
what's the probability of finding a
particle in some volume of space you
just integrate PSI star PSI over that
volume of space that gives you the
probability of finding the particle
there
okay I'm gonna end this video on a
cliffhanger by alluding to one of my
favorite ideas of all time which is
beautiful and profound and it relates to
the complex numbers and that is the idea
that in Quantum electrodynamics a local
U1 symmetry of the wave function implies
electromagnetism this is going to take a
while to unpack and I am going to come
back to this in a future video it's
probably going to take like an hour but
we're really going to get into it and
it's going to be awesome for now I'll
just show you these equations if you
know you know if you don't stay tuned
but it's a pretty profound concept
basically what it comes down to is that
when you're doing Quantum
electrodynamics you have a wave function
it's actually kind of four-way functions
in one but if you impose the condition
that you can swing your wave function
around in Phase space arbitrarily then
what you'll find is that in order to
keep the lagrangian density the same
that is in order to not affect the laws
of physics and Quantum electrodynamics
you need the gauge symmetry of the
electromagnetic 4 potential which is
what we actually see right so the four
potential is kind of like relativistic
voltage and there's this inherent tree
as a result of that which has to do with
the way that the derivatives not Bonds
the electrical Community Fields anyway
if there's a lot there I'm not going to
go into it now but just know that there
are really deep and profound ideas
relating to the complex numbers in
quantum mechanics this video today
really has only scratched the surface
but I hope it's given you at least some
intuition for the complex numbers
one final thing that I want to say
becoming familiar with the complex
numbers takes time it takes hours and
hours of like plotting equations and
solving problems and doing things so
you're not supposed to get the ideas
right away no one ever does but uh you
know hey a journey of a thousand miles
is you know one footstep at a time or
however that saying goes and I hope you
keep on going on that path because
physics is really one of the most
wholesome things a person can do I think
but maybe I'm biased all right well
that's the video hope you enjoyed it and
have a great day
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