Islam and Politics: Crash Course World History 216

Summary

In this Crash Course World History episode, John Green explores the concept of the Islamic State and its historical roots. He explains the meaning of a caliphate and its significance in early Islamic history, contrasting it with modern nation-states. Green discusses the diversity within Islam and challenges the notion of a 'clash of civilizations,' emphasizing the complexity and nuance of Islamic political thought and its interaction with Western values.

Takeaways

• 📜 The term 'caliphate' refers to an Islamic state modeled on the original community founded by Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century.
• 🕋 The first four political leaders of the Islamic community are known as the 'Four Rightly Guided caliphs', who are seen by some as a golden age of unity and stability.
• 🔍 ISIS and other Islamist groups aim to reestablish a caliphate, but the modern boundaries and definition of such a state are unclear.
• 🌐 The concept of Islamism is distinct from Islam itself, referring to the idea that Islam can form the basis of a government, often in response to Western nationalism.
• 🏛 The historical Islamic empire was not always a caliphate and was an empire with diverse political structures.
• 🌱 Early Islamic society was notably egalitarian for its time, emphasizing the equality of all Muslims before God and the law.
• 👥 Ethnicity has always played a role in the Islamic world, influencing the experience of being a Muslim in various countries like Turkey, Egypt, and Pakistan.
• 🏦 The concept of 'bay'a' and 'shura' in early Islamic governance provided a form of limited rule and consultation, contrasting with hereditary monarchies.
• 🌐 The idea of freedom in Islam is complex, with the concept of submission to God seen as a form of liberation from servitude to other humans.
• 🌟 The diversity within Islam and the Islamic world is immense, and the clash of civilizations model oversimplifies the intricate relationship between Islam and political values.

Q & A

What is the significance of the term 'Caliphate' in Islamic history?

The term 'Caliphate' refers to an Islamic state modeled on the original Islamic community founded by Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. It represents a time of growth, political stability, and unity for the Islamic empire, although in reality, there was significant diversity and disagreement even during the period of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs.

What is the difference between a Caliph and a King in the context of Islamic history?

A Caliph is a successor to the Prophet Muhammad and holds both religious and political authority, but is not hereditary and is subject to the rule of law. In contrast, a King is typically a hereditary ruler with absolute power, not necessarily bound by religious law.

How does the concept of 'Islamism' differ from 'Fundamentalism' and 'Islam' as a religion?

Islamism is the idea that Islam can be the basis of government, which is not necessarily the same as fundamentalism, although they are often related. Islamism is a political ideology, while Islam is a diverse and complicated worldwide religious tradition.

What is the historical context behind the rise of Islamism as a political force?

Islamism developed as a response to Western-style nationalism and imperialism. It became more relevant after the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington in 2001, which led to increased attention to the perceived incompatibility between Islam and Western civilization.

How does the concept of 'egalitarianism' manifest in early Islamic society?

In early Islamic society, egalitarianism was unusually pronounced for its time, with the Quran stating that the noblest among believers are the most godfearing. Islamic law did not make class distinctions among Muslims, and the blood of believers was considered of equal value, although there were still distinctions made between Muslims and non-Muslims.

What is the role of 'shura' and 'bay'a' in the governance of a Caliphate?

Shura refers to the duty of the Caliph to consult with others before making decisions, while bay'a is a political allegiance agreement between the Caliph and the subjects, specifying rights and duties for both parties. These concepts provide a form of limited rule and participation in government.

How does the concept of 'freedom' in Islam differ from Western concepts of freedom?

In Islam, freedom is understood as being released from domination by other people and made servants of God, which is seen as the opposite of slavery. This differs from Western concepts of freedom, which often emphasize individual liberties and autonomy.

What is the relationship between the concept of a Caliphate and modern democratic values?

The concept of a Caliphate, with its emphasis on the rule of law and the sovereignty of God, can be seen as enshrining some republican values. However, it struggles with democratic values because democracy is based on the idea of popular sovereignty, which is at odds with the Islamic view that ultimate sovereignty belongs to God.

How does the script challenge the 'clash of civilizations' narrative?

The script challenges the 'clash of civilizations' narrative by highlighting the diversity within both Islamic and Western societies, and by arguing that Islamism is a recent phenomenon, often a reaction to Western imperialism, and does not necessarily reflect the entirety of Islamic history or thought.

What is the significance of the statement 'Islam might just as validly be considered as one item in a class whose other items include communism, parliamentary democracy, fascism, and the like'?

This statement emphasizes that Islam should be seen as a social and political system, similar to other ideologies, rather than just a religion. It suggests that Islam encompasses a complete system of law and governance, and should be understood in the context of its historical and cultural development.

Outlines

00:00

📰 The Formation and Ideal of the Caliphate

John Green introduces the topic by discussing the formation of ISIS and their declaration of a caliphate in 2014, prompting questions about what a caliphate is. He explains that it’s modeled after the Islamic state established by Muhammad’s successors, the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, but notes that the historical reality was far more complex, with three of the four caliphs being assassinated. He emphasizes that while groups like ISIS idealize the caliphate, it wasn’t as unified as they believe, highlighting the diversity and internal disagreements within the Islamic world.

05:09

⚖️ Egalitarianism in Early Islam

Green discusses the egalitarian principles in early Islam, focusing on the Quranic belief that all believers are equal. He notes that while there were no class distinctions among Muslims, inequality persisted between Muslims and non-Muslims, as well as between men and women. Green also touches on the practice of slavery, pointing out that while Muslims generally avoided enslaving other Muslims, Islamic egalitarianism was still limited. He compares this to Western values like egalitarianism, suggesting that similar limitations existed in early American history.

10:12

🌍 The Clash of Civilizations and Modern Islamism

Green explores the concept of a clash of civilizations, focusing on how some Westerners view Islam as incompatible with political values like freedom and democracy. He acknowledges that radical Islamist groups such as Al-Qaeda and Boko Haram reject these values, but argues that this view oversimplifies the diversity within Islamic thought. Green asserts that Islamism is a recent phenomenon, largely a reaction to Western imperialism, and emphasizes the importance of understanding both historical and contemporary contexts when discussing political Islam.

Keywords

💡Caliphate

A caliphate is an Islamic state, modeled on the original Islamic community that was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. The term 'caliph' means 'successor', referring to the leaders who succeeded Muhammad politically. The video discusses how groups like ISIS aim to reestablish a caliphate, which they perceive as a golden age of political stability and unity, despite historical complexities. The script uses the concept to explore the historical and contemporary appeal of such a state.

💡Islamism

Islamism, as defined in the video, is the idea that Islam can be the basis of government. It is distinguished from fundamentalism and is not synonymous with Islam, which is a diverse religious tradition. The video emphasizes that Islamism is a political force that has developed in response to Western-style nationalism and is not representative of the beliefs of the majority of Muslims. It is used in the script to discuss the political motivations behind groups advocating for a caliphate.

💡Rightly Guided Caliphs

The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs refer to the first four political leaders of the Islamic community after the death of Prophet Muhammad. They are seen by some as the ideal rulers of an Islamic state due to their close association with the Prophet and the early Islamic community. The video uses this term to highlight the historical model that contemporary Islamists look to for inspiration, despite the fact that even during their rule, there was diversity and disagreement.

💡Egalitarianism

Egalitarianism is the belief in the equality of all people and the importance of promoting social equality. In the context of the video, it is used to compare early Islamic values with Western political values. The script points out that early Islam was unusually egalitarian for its time, avoiding hierarchy based on class and emphasizing the equal value of all believers' lives, although it had limitations, such as the status of women and non-Muslims.

💡Bay'a

Bay'a is a concept of political allegiance in Islamic political theory, where an agreement is made between the future caliph and the future subject, outlining specified rights and duties for each party. The video discusses bay'a as a form of limited rule that gives people some participation in government, contrasting with the idea of absolute monarchy and highlighting a form of governance that predates modern democratic principles.

💡Shura

Shura is the duty of a caliph to consult with others before making decisions. It represents a form of consultation or consensus-building that is part of Islamic governance. The video uses shura to illustrate that while the caliphate is not a democracy, it does involve a degree of shared decision-making and is not solely based on the will of one person.

💡Arab Ethnicity

The video discusses how Arab ethnicity was privileged in the early Islamic world, particularly during the period of conquest, despite the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad that emphasized equality among all people regardless of ethnicity. This concept is used to explore the historical development of the Islamic world and how it has influenced contemporary understandings of Islamic identity and nationhood.

💡Jizya

Jizya is a tax historically paid by non-Muslims, specifically Christians and Jews, living in Muslim empires. The video mentions jizya to illustrate the historical relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims within an Islamic state, and how it contrasts with the treatment of Muslims in other historical contexts, such as under Christian rulers in Spain.

💡Clash of Civilizations

The 'clash of civilizations' is a concept that suggests there is an inherent conflict between different cultural and religious groups, particularly between Islam and Western civilization. The video critiques this idea, arguing that it oversimplifies complex historical and contemporary relationships and fails to account for the diversity and complexity within both Islamic and Western societies.

💡Republican Values

In the context of the video, 'republican values' refer to principles that emphasize the rule of law, the limitation of governmental power, and the sovereignty of the people. The video discusses how the caliphate can be seen as embodying some of these values, such as the rule of law and the idea that ultimate sovereignty belongs to God, not to rulers. This is used to draw parallels between Islamic governance and Western political thought.

💡Shari'a Law

Shari'a law is the moral and legal framework within Islam, derived from the Quran and Hadith. The video mentions Shari'a law as a check on rulers' power, highlighting that in an Islamic state, even the caliph is subject to the law. This concept is used to contrast the idea of divine sovereignty with the human sovereignty that underpins democratic systems.

Highlights

The Islamic State declared a caliphate in 2014, prompting many to question what a caliphate is.

A caliphate is an Islamic state modeled on the original Islamic community founded by Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century.

The first four political leaders of the Islamic community are known as the Four Rightly Guided caliphs.

ISIS and other Islamists view the era of the Rightly Guided caliphs as a golden age of growth, stability, and unity.

The Islamic world was diverse and had disagreements even under the Four Rightly Guided caliphs.

Islamism is the idea that Islam can be the basis of government, distinct from fundamentalism and the broader Islamic tradition.

Islamism developed as a response to Western-style nationalism.

The idea of Islam guiding nation-states is older than recent events but gained relevance post-2001.

The concept of a clash of civilizations between Islam and the West has become deeply ingrained.

European-style nation-states value democracy, pluralism, egalitarianism, and individualism.

The Islamic world also has nation-states, challenging the notion of a fundamental opposition to Western political values.

Islam is a universal religion that transcends ethnic identity, as stated in the Quran.

Early Islamic empires were not always caliphates and were more akin to empires.

Islam was unusually egalitarian for its time, avoiding hierarchy except based on piety.

Islamic law does not make class distinctions among Muslims, only between Muslims and non-Muslims.

The concept of bay'a involves a political allegiance with specified rights and duties between caliph and subject.

Shura is the duty of the caliph to consult with others before making decisions.

Islamism emphasizes the rule of law, with even the caliph subject to it, as sovereignty belongs to God.

Radical Islamists reject democracy, viewing it as a new religion that deifies the masses.

Islamism is a recent phenomenon, largely a reaction to Western imperialism and nationalism.

Islam is not just a religion but also a civilization with a complete system of law.

Understanding contemporary Islamic thought requires recognizing the complexity of politics, religion, history, and nation.

Transcripts

Hi, I’m John Green, this is Crash Course World History and today we’re going to talk about the Islamic state. A story ripped from the headlines!

Mr. Green? Wait. No, no, no, no this is not history this is news and also for me it’s not even news - it’s the future.

Yeah, Me from the Past, it turns out that history is a continuous process, and that even current events have a history.

[Theme Music]

All right, let’s begin with the headlines.

In 2014 ISIS – the Islamic State In Iraq and Syria, also known as ISIL and Islamic State, and many other things.

Anyway, they declared a caliphate in the territory that the group controls, prompting many Americans to wonder what a Caliphate is.

Well, if you’ve seen our episode on the emergence of Islam, the caliphate is an Islamic state, modeled on the original Islamic community that was founded by the prophet Muhammad in the 7th century.

Now Muhammad was not a caliph, because the word means successor and they were the successors to Muhammad.

But the first four political leaders who led the community and turned it into an empire have come to be known as the Four Rightly Guided caliphs.

And when groups like ISIS that are trying to reestablish this kind of government look back on it they see it as being kind of the golden age.

That this was a time of not just of growth for the Islamic empire but also of political stability and unity.

Which as it happens it really wasn’t. Like even under the Four Rightly Guided caliphs the Islamic world was tremendously diverse and had huge disagreements.

I mean of the Four Rightly Guided caliphs, three were assassinated.

But anyway, the ideal version of that type of state is what ISIS and some other Islamists mean when they talk about reconstructing a caliphate although what the boundaries of a modern-day Caliphate might be are far from clear.

I mean are you going to try to include Indonesia, but anyway, according to historian Michael Cook,

“the restoration of the caliphate is a political ideal for many Islamists – and for some a political project,”

But I want to be clear, that is not the case for the vast majority of Muslims. So when I use the term Islamism I mean something very specific.

For me, Islamism is the idea that Islam can be the basis of government; it’s not the same as fundamentalism, although it’s often related to it.

And it’s certainly not the same thing as Islam - which is a diverse and complicated and world wide religious tradition.

Now, Islamism is a potent political force, but it’s a relatively recent one, and in many ways it developed as a response to our old friend, Western-style nationalism.

That said, the idea that Islam can guide nation states or new kinds of states is much older than, you know, 2001. But it became much more relevant to Americans then with the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington.

Since then there has been more and more attention paid to the argument that Islam and Western civilization were at-best incompatible and at-worst locked in a mortal clash of civilizations.

That clash of civilizations idea has become so ingrained that even though I don’t really agree with it I think we need to at least acknowledge what we’re talking about when we talk about us and them.

Us, usually refers to European style nation states such as those which became dominant in the 19th century.

These states tend to value democracy or at least pluralism, and, to varying degrees, they espouse political values such as egalitarianism and individualism.

National identity in these states has at least traditionally been in a sense ethnic – based on some sense of shared language and culture if not exactly kinship – and it’s secular rather than religious.

And then the arguments goes that the Islamic world is the opposite of this, but I am not convinced that that’s accurate.

For instance, there are lots of religious connections in European style nation states and there are lots of conversations about strengthening those religious connections or even making laws according to religious dictates.

And in the Islamic world there are lots and lots of nation states.

But let’s start with the idea that the Islamists are out of step with the modern political reality of the nation state. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

So Islam is a universal religion that is supposed to transcend ethnic identity. According to the Quran, “The believers indeed are brothers.” (Q49:10)

The universal nature of Islam didn’t mean that ethnicity didn’t matter at all of course; it did.

Early on and for a long time Arab ethnicity was privileged in the Islamic world and this was especially true during the period of conquest.

This was despite Muhammad saying

“Truly the Arab has no superiority over the non-Arab, nor the non-Arab over the Arab, nor the black over the white, nor the white over the black, except in piety.”

But their amazingly rapid and far reaching conquest granted the Arabs huge prestige that lasted until the 18th century.

Now, from the beginning being a Muslim meant being part of a political community, because unlike Jesus or the Buddha, Muhammad was also a political leader in addition being a religious one.

But at least to an extent the tight connection between political and religious identity really ended with the assassination of the Fourth Rightly Guided Caliph Ali.

According to the writer Tamim Ansary, “After Ali’s death, the khalifate was just an empire.”

But as the empire grew and became more diverse, it became impossible to hold it together as a political unit.

So, even though the idea of a caliphate doesn’t square so well with western notions of ethnically homogenous nation states, ethnicity has always mattered in the Islamic world, as we can see if we go to Turkey, or Egypt, or Pakistan.

In each of those places, the experience of being a Muslim is affected by the experience of one’s ethnicity.

Thanks, Thought Bubble. So this idea that the Islamic empire wasn’t always a caliphate for much of its history, was just an empire is really important.

Because it gets to how not-different ways of organizing people are when it comes to like us and them. Now I’m not trying to make a false equivalence or say that all people are the same or whatever.

But like let’s look at a defining western political value - egalitarianism. In its earliest incarnations, Islam was unusually egalitarian, especially for its time.

The religion structurally avoids hierarchy except perhaps based on piety. The Quran (49:13) states:

“the noblest among you in the sight of God is the most godfearing of you,” and there’s a quote from Muhammad that “people are equals like the teeth of a comb.”

To which I say. What’s a comb? Also, Islamic law, unlike, say Hammurabi’s code, doesn’t make class distinctions among Muslims,

only between Muslims and non-Muslims, and Muhammad is quoted as saying that the blood of believers is always of equal value.

In fact, that Islam lacks caste and formal aristocracy was noted by many Europeans, who thought it was weird.

Now this canonical idea egalitarianism is not the same thing as equality - at least the equality that we’ve come to think about in the present day.

Like in the Quran, and in the sayings of Muhammad called Hadiths, women and men are alike in the performance of prayer and their obligation to pay the alms tax and their expectations of eternal life in paradise.

And women did have some inheritance rights in the early Islamic community that they did not enjoy in pre-Islamic Arabic communities.

And that they also wouldn’t have had in Byzantium or, god forbid, Rome.

And then there’s the inequality between Muslims and ‘unbelievers’ which is pretty well known;

like other “peoples of the book” Christians and Jews, could live and work in Muslim empires provided they paid a special tax called the jizya.

Which was far better than the life of a Muslim under Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain.

And then there’s the issue of slavery, which the Quran accepts. In general Muslims have avoided enslaving other Muslims, showing that there is a sense of brotherhood and solidarity among believers,

but overall to quote a historian “Islamic egalitarianism was … limited to free Muslim males.”

Of course, if you’ve watched our US History series you may remember that early American egalitarianism was limited to like land-owning Christian males.

My point here, is that if you look for historical precedents, you can generally find them. That’s true in the Islamic world, it’s also true in the rest of the world.

Now today, in Europe and the United States, most citizens expect their states to be, in at least some degree, democratic, and republican, and constitutional.

So when people in the west look at the early Islamic empire we have a way of imaging Caliphs as kings because, like, you know, we had kings.

But Caliphs were important in different ways, for starters, they were the successor to the prophet.

Now, maybe that’s similar to what the Roman Catholic papacy became over time but it’s not like a king - except for the king of England.

King Henry VIII, founder of my church, who was like “I need to be the head of the church so that I can get divorced.”

But this combination of religious and political authority is important as is, at least initially, there was no hereditary succession of caliphs.

And then there’s the concept of bay’a which is a kind of political allegiance, like according to Michael Cook,

“an agreement is made between the future caliph and the future subject whereby each party is to have specified rights and duties.”

A closely related theme is shura, “the duty of the caliph to consult with others before making his decision.”

Like, according to tradition, when Abu Bakr accepted the role of the first Caliph he claimed that Muslims had no duty to obey him if he disobeyed God and the Prophet.

Now that’s not democracy, but it is limited rule and it gives people some participation in the government.

And then there’s another Western value that is often bandied about as something that isn’t part of the Islamic world - freedom.

Islam, as you may know, means “submission.” And a Muslim is a person who submits to God.

And to some Westerns that seems like the opposite of freedom.

But the tradition within Islam, is that by releasing people from domination by other people, and making them servants of God - there is freedom.

Freedom is a famously abstract concept, but if we think of it as the opposite of slavery, then being free from having to serve other people is freedom.

That said, in contemporary Islamism, political freedom is not generally held in particularly high esteem.

Which is one of the reasons why Islamists were less relevant in the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011 than people tend to think.

But in at least one way, the caliphate can be thought of as enshrining republican (with a little “r”) values; Islamism emphasizes the rule of law and that even the caliph is subject to it.

Since ultimate sovereignty belongs only to God, men to quote Michael Cook, “are not entitled to exercise lordship over each other.”

And the much talked about Shari’a law, coming from a source outside the political process (whether that’s God or religious scholars) acts as a huge check on rulers becoming dictators.

Right. like Iran’s government has many problems, but its president is not a dictator.

But that same complete sovereignty of God over the people makes it difficult for Islamists to embrace democracy, because it’s based on the idea that the people themselves are sovereign.

And the most radical Islamists, like Ayman al Zawahiri of Al-Qaeda really do hate democracy.

He called democracy, “a new religion that deifies the masses.” And the completely extreme and absolutely horrifying Boko Haram in Nigeria have exclaimed that they,

“will never accept any system of government apart from one stipulated by Islam,” and will,

“keep on fighting against democracy, capitalism, socialism and whatever.”

Yes, the “and whatever” is a quote. If you belong to a group that is fighting blank, blank, blank, and whatever - you need to leave that group.

So it’s easy and relatively common for people in the West to say that Islam is inimical to political values like freedom, equality and democracy.

And when we talk about certain groups of radical Islamists, that’s true.

But in the West we also really, really struggle to see the other complexly, and to understand the incredible diversity in response to the revelation of the Quran.

In my opinion, the clash of civilizations model oversimplifies the world into this group and that group, and imagines that this group sees the world only that way and that group sees the world only this way. In fact, it’s complicated.

For one thing, modern Islamism itself, is a very recent phenomenon,

and in large part it’s a reaction to western imperialism and nationalism, and it doesn’t always reflect the ideas of Islam OR Islamic history.

Humans have a storied tradition of calling upon certain facets of our history to inspire us toward what we already kind of want.

And those seeking to recreate the caliphate want a more powerful and unified Arab world, if not, an Islamic world.

And so they look toward history for inspiration, taking parts and leaving many others.

What really happened, is that for the most part European style nationalism took hold in the Islamic world at the same time it rose in Europe, as the creation of Turkey shows quite clearly.

But in trying to understand the allure of the caliphate it’s important to understand that Islam is not just a religion. From the beginning, it was a civilization.

As the historian Tamim Ansary wrote:

“Islam might just as validly be considered as one item in a class whose other items include communism, parliamentary democracy, fascism, and the like,

because Islam is a social project like those others, an idea for how politics and the economy ought to be managed, a complete system of civil and criminal law.”

But it’s also a very diverse system shaped by everything around it and everything inside of it - like any civilization.

So when we try to discuss a topic as complex and charged as contemporary Islamic thought and practice and political world views, we don’t just need to be sure that we have some sense of history.

We also need to be sure that we’re all talking about the same thing. There is nothing bright about the lines between politics and religion and history and nation.

Thank you for watching. I’ll see you next week.

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