Colliding Continents | Naked Science

Summary

This script explores Earth's geological future, predicting dramatic changes due to continental drift. It envisions a time when familiar continents merge into a supercontinent, causing extreme climate shifts and potential mass extinctions. The script delves into Earth's history, from its violent birth to the formation and destruction of supercontinents like Pangaea, driven by plate tectonics. It highlights natural disasters as a consequence of these movements and speculates on the future geological and climatic conditions that might challenge human survival.

Takeaways

• 🌏 The Earth's continents are in a constant state of motion and transformation due to tectonic forces, which will continue to shape the planet's surface for billions of years.
• 🌌 Intergalactic explorers in the distant future may find a vastly different Earth, possibly a single landmass with extreme climates and geological features, due to the ongoing process of continental collision and separation.
• 🏞️ Continents are formed and destroyed in cycles, with the current configuration of continents being just a snapshot in a long geological timeline.
• 🔥 The Earth was initially a molten mass, and over time, the cooling and solidification of its surface led to the formation of the first landmasses, including granite as a key component.
• 🌊 Water, possibly delivered by meteors and asteroids, played a crucial role in the formation of Earth's oceans, which are essential for the development of life and climate.
• 🌋 The theory of continental drift, proposed by Alfred Wegener, has been confirmed by evidence such as matching fossils on different continents, indicating that they were once joined.
• 🌈 Plate tectonics is driven by heat from the Earth's core, causing the movement of continents and the creation of geological features like mountains and ocean trenches.
• 🏞️ The formation of continents and their geological features, such as the Grand Canyon and the Alps, are the result of continental collisions and the immense forces involved.
• 🌍 The current configuration of continents has a significant impact on global climate and ecosystems, and changes in this configuration will affect the habitability of the planet.
• 🌪️ Natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis are part of the Earth's natural cycle and are a consequence of the movement of tectonic plates.
• 🔮 Predicting the exact timing of geological events is impossible, but the locations of future volcanic activity and earthquakes can be anticipated based on plate boundaries and historical patterns.

Q & A

What is the premise of the video script discussing Earth's future?

The video script discusses a future vision of Earth hundreds of millions of years from now, where intergalactic explorers return to find a drastically changed planet with a single giant landmass, massive geological features, and remnants of ancient civilizations.

How does the script describe the current continents of Earth?

The script describes the current continents as distinct land masses separated by oceans, providing a stable environment with hospitable weather patterns suitable for civilization and city development.

What is the role of colliding continents in shaping Earth's geological features?

Colliding continents are described as the mightiest force on Earth, responsible for the creation and destruction of geological features, including the formation of mountains, the disappearance of oceans, and the reshaping of landmasses in a cycle of death and rebirth.

How did the first land on Earth form?

The first land on Earth formed as the heaviest elements like lead and nickel sank toward the center to form a molten core, while lighter elements including oxygen and silicon rose to the surface, erupting in volcanoes and slowly cooling to form patches of crust.

What is the significance of granite in the formation of the first continents?

Granite is significant because it is less dense than other rocks in the mantle, allowing it to float on the surface and mix with other rocks to form the first continental nuclei, which are the seeds of the first continents.

How does the script explain the movement of continents?

The script explains that continents are not fixed in place but are constantly moving due to powerful forces deep within the planet, which rip continents apart and then smash them together in an ever-changing cycle.

What evidence supports the theory of continental drift?

Evidence for continental drift includes the discovery of identical fossils on different continents, which suggests that these continents were once closer together, and the observation of continents moving apart at the mid-Atlantic ridge.

How does the script describe the formation of the Atlantic Ocean?

The script describes the formation of the Atlantic Ocean as a result of the collision and subsequent separation of the African and South American plates, which created a vast interconnected volcanic mountain range that extends through all the major oceans of the world.

What is the role of plate tectonics in the creation of natural disasters?

Plate tectonics play a significant role in the creation of natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, as the movement and interaction of tectonic plates create stress points and instability at plate boundaries.

What does the script suggest about the future of Earth's continents?

The script suggests that the continents will continue to move and change, potentially forming a new supercontinent called Pangaea Ultima, which could lead to extreme climate conditions and possibly trigger another mass extinction.

How does the script relate the geological history of Earth to the potential future of our planet?

The script relates the geological history of Earth by highlighting the continuous cycle of continental movement and change, suggesting that the processes that have shaped Earth over billions of years will continue to do so in the future, potentially leading to the destruction and rebirth of continents and affecting the survival of life on Earth.

Outlines

00:00

🌍 Future Earth's Drastic Transformation

This paragraph envisions Earth in the distant future, where intergalactic explorers return to find a planet drastically altered from its current state. Continents have merged into a single landmass with immense mountain ranges and glaciers. The once-thriving metropolises are now mere remnants buried under tons of rock. The script introduces the concept of Earth's ever-changing landscape due to the power of colliding continents, which have been shaping and reshaping the planet in a cycle of creation and destruction for billions of years.

05:00

🏔 The Birth and Evolution of Continents

The script delves into the geological history of Earth, starting from its formation 4.5 billion years ago. It describes the initial creation of the planet from debris, the formation of the Moon, and the intense heat that characterized the early Earth. The process of land formation is detailed, with heavy elements sinking to form the core and lighter elements like oxygen and silicon rising to create the first patches of crust. The challenges faced by the early crust due to asteroid bombardments are highlighted, and the eventual stabilization leading to the formation of the first continents is discussed.

10:02

📅 Geological Time and the Formation of Granite

This paragraph focuses on the role of granite in the formation of the first continents. It discusses the importance of zircon crystals in dating rocks and the process of how these crystals form a natural clock to measure geological time. The granite in South Africa's cup Val region is presented as an ancient remnant of the first continental nuclei. The paragraph also explores the theory that life, specifically photosynthetic organisms, may have contributed to the formation of granite and the growth of the continents.

15:03

🌏 The Dynamics of Continental Drift

The concept of continental drift is introduced, with the explanation of tectonic plates and their movement powered by heat from the Earth's core. The paragraph discusses the evidence for continental drift, such as identical fossils found on different continents, and the process of plate tectonics that leads to the creation of new land and the destruction of existing land masses. The formation of the Atlantic Ocean and the mid-Atlantic ridge is highlighted as an example of continents being pushed apart.

20:04

🌋 The Creation and Destruction of Supercontinents

The script discusses the cyclical nature of continental movement, leading to the formation and breakup of supercontinents. It describes the process of how continents drift apart and then collide again to form new landmasses. The history of the supercontinent Val Barra and its eventual destruction by the heat buildup beneath it is detailed. The paragraph also touches on the formation of the next known supercontinent, Rodinia, and the continuous cycle of continental dispersion and collision.

25:06

🛑 Mass Extinctions and the Formation of Pangaea

This paragraph discusses the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea and its impact on Earth's climate and life. It describes how the formation of Pangaea led to drastic climate changes and may have contributed to one of the largest mass extinctions in Earth's history. The script also details the breakup of Pangaea and the gradual formation of the continents we recognize today, including the separation of South America from Africa and the movement of other landmasses.

30:06

🏞️ The Geological Features Formed by Colliding Continents

The script explores the geological features created by continental collisions, such as the formation of the Alps and the Himalayas. It explains the process of mountain building as a result of the collision between the African and Eurasian plates, and the formation of the Grand Canyon due to the uplift of the seabed following a plate collision. The paragraph also discusses the impact of these geological events on the planet's climate and ecosystems.

35:08

🌊 The Isthmus of Panama and Global Climate Change

This paragraph discusses the formation of the Isthmus of Panama and its effects on global ocean currents and climate. The joining of North and South America led to a change in the flow of water between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, potentially triggering an ice age and causing mass extinctions. The script highlights the interconnectedness of continental movements and global climate patterns.

40:09

🌐 The Future of Earth's Continents and Natural Disasters

The script envisions the future of Earth's continents, predicting the widening of the Atlantic Ocean and the formation of new mountain ranges. It discusses the inevitability of natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions due to plate tectonics. The paragraph also contemplates the potential for future mass extinctions and the resilience of the human species in the face of these geological changes.

45:12

🌑 The Ultimate Fate of Earth: Pangaea Ultima

In this final paragraph, the script speculates on the far future of Earth, predicting the formation of a new supercontinent called Pangaea Ultima. It describes the potential climate extremes and the geological changes that will reshape the planet's surface. The paragraph concludes with a reflection on the resilience of life and the possibility that humanity may have to leave Earth in search of a new home due to these drastic changes.

Keywords

💡Continents

Continents are large, distinct landmasses on Earth's surface, separated by oceans. They are a central theme in the video, illustrating the dynamic nature of Earth's geology. The script discusses how continents are not fixed but are constantly moving due to tectonic forces, shaping Earth's landscape and climate over millions of years, as seen in the formation and destruction of supercontinents like Pangaea.

💡Tectonic Plates

Tectonic plates are the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into several large slabs that move atop the asthenosphere. The script explains how these plates' movement causes the continents to drift, collide, and sometimes split apart, leading to the creation of geological features like mountains and ocean trenches, and influencing natural disasters such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

💡Continental Drift

Continental drift is the hypothesis that the continents move across the Earth's surface, first proposed by Alfred Wegener. The video script uses this concept to explain how the continents were once joined together in supercontinents and have since drifted apart to form the current configuration of Earth's landmasses, and how they will continue to change in the future.

💡Supercontinent

A supercontinent refers to a landmass comprising multiple continents that have come together. The script mentions historical supercontinents like Val Barra, Rodinia, and Pangaea, and speculates about the future supercontinent, Pangaea Ultima, illustrating the cyclical nature of Earth's continents amalgamating and splitting over geological time.

💡Subduction Zone

A subduction zone is an area where one tectonic plate moves under another and is forced into the mantle due to plate tectonics. The script describes how subduction zones are sites of intense geological activity, leading to the formation of deep ocean trenches and volcanic activity, and are a key process in the recycling of Earth's crust.

💡Mountain Ranges

Mountain ranges are a series of mountains that form a continuous chain. The video script discusses how mountain ranges like the Alps and Himalayas are formed by the collision of tectonic plates, resulting in the uplift of the Earth's crust and creating some of the most dramatic landscapes on the planet.

💡Fossil Record

The fossil record is the collection of all preserved fossils of plants and animals. The script uses the fossil record to demonstrate how scientists can determine the historical positions of continents and the existence of past environments, such as the identification of freshwater organisms' fossils on different continents, supporting the theory of continental drift.

💡Geological Time Scale

The geological time scale is a system of chronological measurement used by geologists, archaeologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships of events that have occurred during Earth's history. The script references this scale to frame the immense timescales over which continental movements and geological processes occur, such as the formation and breakup of supercontinents.

💡Mantle

The mantle is the layer of the Earth between the crust and the core. It is composed of silicate rocks rich in iron and magnesium. The script explains that the mantle's heat and pressure make it semi-fluid, allowing tectonic plates to move, and that it plays a crucial role in the process of plate tectonics and the formation of geological features.

💡Mass Extinctions

Mass extinctions are events where a significant proportion of the Earth's biodiversity is wiped out. The script refers to the Permo-Triassic extinction event, which is linked to the formation of the supercontinent Pangaea and its subsequent climate effects, demonstrating the profound impact of geological processes on Earth's life.

💡Natural Disasters

Natural disasters are catastrophic events resulting from natural processes of the Earth. The script discusses how the movement of tectonic plates can lead to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis, emphasizing that these events are an inevitable part of the Earth's geological cycle and have significant impacts on human societies.

Highlights

Intergalactic explorers in the distant future find Earth drastically changed, with a single giant landmass and signs of ancient civilizations nearly erased.

The Earth's continents are not fixed but constantly moving due to powerful forces within the planet.

The geological future of New York is predicted to be traumatic, with continents like Africa and Europe colliding.

The Earth's current continents are formed through a natural cycle of construction and destruction over billions of years.

The first land masses were small 'rafts' of rock floating on the mantle, which later grew into continents.

Granite, a buoyant rock, played a crucial role in the formation of the first continents.

Zircon crystals within rocks provide a natural clock to date the Earth's earliest geological events.

Early life forms may have contributed to the formation of granite, which in turn created the first continents.

Continental drift was proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, based on the discovery of identical fossils across oceans.

Plate tectonics is driven by the Earth's core heat, creating convection currents in the mantle.

The mid-Atlantic ridge is a place where continents are currently being pushed apart, forming new ocean crust.

The formation of supercontinents like Pangaea has significant effects on global climate and can lead to mass extinctions.

The breakup of Pangaea led to the formation of the continents and climate patterns we recognize today.

The collision of continents creates mountain ranges like the Alps and the Himalayas.

The Grand Canyon was formed by the uplift of the land due to continental collision and subsequent erosion by the Colorado River.

The Isthmus of Panama's formation changed global ocean currents and may have contributed to an ice age.

Continents will continue to move, potentially leading to another supercontinent and altering Earth's climate and ecosystems.

In the far future, Earth may become a single landmass again, known as Pangaea Ultima, with extreme climate conditions.

The movement of continents is responsible for many natural disasters, such as earthquakes and tsunamis.

Despite the inevitability of these geological processes, humanity may need to adapt or seek new habitats in the distant future.

Transcripts

planet Earth hundreds of millions of

years in the future

intergalactic explorers return to their

home planet in search of signs of

ancient civilizations they find a planet

that has changed beyond recognition

all other familiar continents that we

know today instead may find a giant

landmass with huge mountain ranges

massive frozen snow fields and glaciers

the once thriving metropolis they seek

has disappeared a few broken remnants

are all that remain crushed and buried

beneath tons of rock

could this be a future vision of Earth

naked science asks what forces could

create such a bleak and barren world and

investigates how the awesome power of

colliding continents shapes and reshapes

our planet in an endless cycle of

construction and destruction

[Music]

[Music]

our world's fierce

from space it's easy to see the

distinctive pattern of land that makes

up the continents North America South

America Africa Antarctica Europe Asia

and Australia giant land masses

separated by oceans that stabilise the

environment with hospitable weather

patterns suitable for civilization and

cities to evolve and prosper

[Music]

now imagine our planet ravaged by storm

force winds subjected to extremes of

temperature giant freezes heat waves and

droughts a world where cities are

crushed and destroyed where Africa

tramples New York underfoot and London

freezes at the North Pole

the geological future of New York is

going to be rather traumatic North

America and Europe are going to collide

with one another the world as we know it

will be unrecognizable this is not a

portrait of the earth after a

devastating global disaster

this is how nature will shape our planet

many millions of years in the future

this incredible remodeling is just part

of a natural cycle that has shaped the

earth for the last 4 billion years and

will continue to do so until the Sun

finally destroys its surface once and

for all

today our continents may seem solid safe

and forever fixed in place but they are

none of those things these great land

masses are constantly on the move speed

up the last few billion years and one

can see the continents sailing across

the globe powerful forces deep within

the planet rip the continents apart and

then smash them together in an

ever-changing cycle of death and rebirth

oceans disappear mountains crumble and

rise again land masses form and reform

colliding continents are the mightiest

force on earth when we look at the

history of planet Earth we see that it

is full of change changes as part of

nature and this change continues today

and will continue into the future

to understand how the continents shape

our world we must first travel back in

time to the very birth of the earth four

and a half billion years ago the earth

is created from the debris leftover from

the formation of the Sun dust and debris

collide and clumped together once these

clumps grow into objects about half a

mile in diameter they create enough

gravity to attract more material

slowly these clumps grow into as many as

20 planets as these new planets orbit

the Sun they begin to collide one

collision with the planet theá--

which creates the moon obliterates the

surface of the earth

the energy from the collision makes the

earth incredibly hot at around 11,000

degrees Fahrenheit it's more than seven

times hotter than the inside of a

cremation furnace earth is a massive

molten ball of boiling lava

this is primeval hell with thousands of

asteroids and comets bombard our world

but deep within the planet a process

starts that will lead to the first land

the heaviest elements LED and nickel

synched down toward the center of the

earth to form a molten core the lighter

elements including oxygen and silicon

rise toward the surface where they erupt

in volcanoes of molten rock slowly the

Earth's surface cools molten lava

solidifies to form patches of crust the

seeds of the first continents

but even as the first land is born it

faces a battle to survive

we were being bombarded by a large

number of asteroids very early in the

history of the planet so there's a lot

of dynamic change from being walloped by

giant impacts disturbing things geology

professor Sam bowring is an expert in

early Earth and the genesis of the

continents when we had a early crust as

is an interesting question I suspect

we've had and we had an early crust from

day one the question is how long was

that preserved when the earth was being

bombarded constantly by asteroids the

chance of preserving any small chunk of

that crust was very low the relentless

bombardment destroys the new planet's

crust almost as soon as it forms this

recycling of the surface continues for

many millions of years but as the flux

of asteroids began to wane and as the

earth matured a little bit I suspect the

early crust lasted a little bit longer

eventually the barrage from asteroid

impact slows down the surface of the

earth continues to cool but the earth is

missing one vital ingredient oceans

we're earth goddess water has been a

controversial topic over the years I

think most people now think that many

meteoritic bodies actually contain quite

a lot of water water carried by meteors

and asteroids may form the oceans that

surround the first continents

the earth 4.4 billion years ago our

planet is now 150 million years old and

the first primitive land masses have

formed they are not like the seven

instantly recognizable continents of

today they are just small rafts of rock

floating on the mantle but now a type of

rock appears on the Earth's surface that

will form the nucleus of future

continents a rock buoyant enough not to

sink into the bowels of the earth

granite in South Africa in the cup vowel

region southwest of Johannesburg

geologists examine ancient granite that

has survived the ravages of time these

are the ancient remains of what some

people consider to be the first true

continent we're looking at the relics

the remnants of the first continental

nuclei this is one of the oldest but

certainly the best preserved continental

nucleus in the world geologist Alex

kissters studies how granite formed the

first continents the rocks here are so

important because they are remarkably

well-preserved much better than any way

on on earth and that allows us actually

to study processes that were involved in

the formation while these early crustal

rocks

kissters is collecting samples to date

the age of the granite we're joining

these little rock horse taking them out

and then sending off their light onto

the lap to potatoes dating rocks is a

complex process because over long

periods of time the minerals can break

down and reform into new rocks

scientists look for an ingredient of

rock that is tough enough to withstand

the test of time

the answer is zircon a crystal that is

made inside molten rock as it solidifies

even if the rock is destroyed the

zircons are durable enough to survive

zircon is an incredibly interesting

mineral and it incorporates uranium and

excludes lead and that sets us up to

have basically nature's time capsule to

illustrate this process imagine that

this hourglass is a newly formed circle

crystal sand in the top represents

uranium the sand in the bottom

represents lead over millions of years

the uranium in the zircon turns into

lead measuring the relative proportions

of sand in the top and bottom of the

glass reveals how much time has passed

uranium's relentless decay into lead

gives us a natural clock using this

technique geologists date this granite

at three and a half billion years old

this makes it some of the oldest rock on

the planet these rocks make up a major

part of what is known as the cup Val

Creighton a Creighton is an ancient raft

of rock light enough to float on the

mantle and around which a continent will

grow ancient cratons have also been

found in the heart of the Australian and

North American continents the Creighton

here in cap Val in South Africa

stretches for four hundred and

sixty-three thousand square miles it's

almost twice the size of Texas without

granite the Creighton and modern

continental crust wouldn't exist

granite forms when minerals in the crust

melt then react with water cool and

crystallize because it is made of

lighter minerals granite is less dense

than other rock in the mantle so it

floats on the surface and mixes with

other rocks to form rafts of land the

cup Val Creighton is not totally built

from granite the oldest rocks here are

these amazing pillow lavas exposed along

the kamati River three and a half

billion years ago they form under the

sea as lava emerges from an underwater

volcanic vent upon contact with water

the lava immediately gains a solid crust

which then cracks and oozes additional

large blobs called pillows these rocks

are amongst the oldest that we know it

is basically identical to Pillar laws

that we see on a recent ocean floor when

settings like a wide the kamati pillow

lavas begin their life on the ocean

floor but are pushed up out of the sea

to form part of a continent

but where did the granite come from to

create it you need the right mix of

minerals a new theory suggests that life

itself may have provided the missing

ingredients it may sound like an

outlandish idea but there's some

evidence that living organisms that use

photosynthesis appeared around the same

time that the continents began to grow

3.8 billion years ago scientist suggests

that early organisms microbes help speed

up the breakdown of rock emerging at the

Earth's crust over hundreds of thousands

of years this rock breaks down into new

minerals which sink back into the mantle

deep below the surface they heat up and

form granitic magma the magma rises into

the proto continent freezes and forms

huge solid rafts of granite

now stabilized the Creighton begins to

grow forming new baby continents but

crayons are not the only factors at work

more powerful forces are building up

deep within the planet forces that have

the power to rip apart land masses and

smash them together changing the face of

the planet forever four and a half

billion years ago the earth forms for

many years it is bombarded by asteroids

and meteors

[Music]

slowly the molten planet cools and small

land masses form around crayons of

granite rock massive forces from deep

within the planet rip apart and smash

these small proto continents together as

they grow into the large land masses we

see today the surface of the earth the

crust is made up of a giant jigsaw of

interlocking pieces called tectonic

plates the separate plates themselves

sit on the mantle the layer between the

crust and the Earth's core

although the mantle is made of rock the

heat and pressure deep down mean it's

flexible enough to allow the plates

above to move up to several inches a

year evidence for the theory of

continental drift was first proposed in

1912 by German scientist Alfred Wegener

he noticed that identical fossils were

discovered oceans away from each other

paleontologist professor Mark McManaman

of Mount Holyoke College in

Massachusetts is an expert in fossil

records begginer noted that a freshwater

organism cannot cross a salty sea and so

if you find the fossils of a freshwater

organism or a land creature on two

continents that are now greatly

separated by distance they must once

have been closer together by identifying

like fossils on different continents

scientists can map which continents were

joined in the past the fossil

distributions will tell us where fossils

occur and how the continents must have

been juxtaposed fossils that are

identical but occurring in very

different parts of the world imply that

the continents have drifted when he

first proposed his theory of continental

drift begginer was laughed at the idea

that continents could actually move was

considered preposterous the problem was

he didn't know how the continents moved

the missing mechanism wasn't discovered

until the 1960s plate tectonics is

powered by heat plate echinus is being

largely driven by the fact that the

interior of the earth is much hotter

than the surface the temperature at the

center of the core is 10,000 degrees

Fahrenheit it's as hot as the outer

parts of the Sun much of the heat is

left over from the collisions and

massive bombardment during the early

days of the earth the rest comes from

radioactive decay of heavy elements in

the core heat escaping from the core

creates convection currents in the next

layer of the earth the mantle the

process is like a lava lamp where heat

from the bulb at the bottom creates

convection currents in the oil pushing

the synthetic lava upward the heat melts

part of the mantle and sends plumes of

magma molten rock rising to the surface

it rises between cracks in the plates

creating new rock that pushes the plates

apart I think that plate tectonics is

virtually inescapable on this planet

it's an exceedingly efficient way to

cool the interior of the earth this

formation of new rocks splits apart and

separates the plates and the continents

sitting on them today the majority of

this new rock forms under the sea

creating vast interconnected volcanic

mountain ranges that extend through all

the major oceans of the world

one range can clearly be seen at the

bottom of the Atlantic Ocean along the

mid-atlantic ridge it stretches more

than 12,000 miles from a sub-antarctic

to the Arctic it comes to the surface in

a few places Iceland was created from

volcanic lava bubbling up at the

junction between the North American and

Eurasian plates it's one of the few

places on earth that one can actually

see continents being pushed apart we are

watching here geological structures that

you cannot really watch anywhere else

it's like a big textbook of geology this

is where the Earth's crust is being made

pal I nursin professor of geophysics at

the University of Iceland monitors the

mid-ocean ridge where the continental

plates are splitting apart the ridge in

Iceland is almost three miles wide on

one side is the North American plate on

the other side the eurasian plate the

rift here grows as new rock forms at its

center

pushing North America and Europe away

from each other the Atlantic Ocean

widens and the two continents drift

apart eventually the Atlantic could

become as big as the Pacific to measure

how fast they're splitting a nursin

takes Global Positioning System readings

at specific points along the plate

margin to put the antenna right on top

of the point and then we can calculate

the exact position of this point in the

world respect to the central earth

although the ridge appears calm and

there's no magma rising to the surface

ina syns measurements show that the two

continents are drifting apart by around

an inch a year so by the end of the

century Europe and America will be

almost eight feet further apart

the movement in Iceland is typical of

the processes shaping the continents

since their birth 4.4 billion years ago

it's part of the great cycle of the

Earth's continents the new crust created

at the mid-ocean ridge moves away cools

and eventually sinks back into the earth

when the first proto continents formed

there were several interconnecting

tectonic plates constantly bumping and

grinding against each other pushing the

new land over the planet today the earth

has over a dozen plates some colliding

together some moving apart they are

powerful enough to move a continent the

size of North America over 3,000 miles

in 200 million years that's 15 miles

every million years the earth 3.4

billion years ago and plate tectonics

pushes the proto continents together

they combine to form ever larger tracts

of land

scientist suggests that cratons combined

with other crayons to form a

supercontinent a huge continuous stretch

of land

it's called Val Barra scientists are

unsure of its exact shape or size as

only a few pieces like the crayon in

South Africa still remain but Val Boras

days are numbered

a rising plume of heat is growing

beneath it it's about to rip the world's

first supercontinent into pieces 2.7

billion years ago val barra the world's

first supercontinent still dominates the

planet but plate tectonics powered by

heat from the Earth's core is about to

split it apart rock is a good insulator

when a continent gets very large the

rock traps heat beneath it

as it gets hotter and hotter a plume of

superheated magma builds up beneath the

giant continental mass the temperature

continues to rise and pressure in the

mantle increases eventually the crust

can no longer contain the pressure and

the hot lava breaks through ripping the

land apart

you can see this process happening today

in Africa heat from the Earth's core is

ripping the continent apart a giant Rift

Valley runs from the Red Sea down to

Mozambique giant cracks are opening up

in the land volcanoes like Kilimanjaro

marked spots where molten rock have

risen to the surface in the past

in ten million years the eastern half of

the continent will have split away

the molten lava trapped beneath the

giant supercontinent of all bara

eventually smashes through the surface

Rock the continent ruptures into several

smaller pieces these bits of land sail

across the earth but nobody knows what

happens to them or what the planet looks

like at this time the earth is entering

the dark ages it is over two and a half

billion years since it was formed it

will be over a billion years before

another supercontinent forms

the earth is entering a deadly cycle of

destruction and rebirth the theory of

continental drift suggests that we go

through cyclic phases of continental

dispersion and then continental

collision and the continents then seem

to move apart from one another and then

collide with one another over a maybe a

hundred million year or more timescale

when a large continent splits apart the

separate pieces travel away from each

other

pushed by the creation of new land at

the ridge between plates because the

earth has a constant surface area the

same amount of land created must be

absorbed into the earth this process

happens at subduction zones at the

junctions of plates at a subduction zone

crust dives down into the mantle to be

melted to form new rock when the plate

subducts into the earth it brings two

pieces of land together when they

collide a new supercontinent starts to

form

it is now 1.1 billion years ago on our

timeline and the next known

supercontinent has formed its name is

rodinia and it holds almost all of the

continental rock on the surface of the

earth still no one knows exactly what it

looked like but at its heart is an area

that will eventually become North

America 350 million years later the

cycle of annihilation and creation

starts again as the buildup of heat

beneath the surface of the earth tears

Rodinia apart when Rodinia splits it

forms several smaller continents that

for millions of years drift apart and

then drift back together again to form

Gondwana a supercontinent in the

southern hemisphere eventually after

several hundred million years Gondwana

slowly splits apart

plate tectonics pushed the land back

together to create the world's last

supercontinent it's a huge landmass

known as Pangaea

all the continents we know today are

here join together geologists are able

to plot the continents relative

positions because 350 million years ago

there are numerous species on earth each

living in distinct regions this specimen

that I have right here is the first

trial of light that was ever described

from what is now the United States it is

exactly the same type of trilobite that

occurs on the other side of the Atlantic

Ocean in North Africa so we know then

that the trello bites in the old and new

worlds must have been close together

because they're so closely related the

fossil records show that North America

and Europe rests next to one another the

land where New York now sits is next to

Morocco in North Africa the Atlantic

Ocean does not exist the east coast of

South America Nestle's against the

western coast of Africa while Australia

India and Antarctica are joined to the

southeast of Africa if we want to look

at a picture of the world 250 million

years ago we're gonna look at a world in

which a four-footed creature could walk

from one end of this landmass to the

other Pangaea is one giant continuous

landmass

it not only makes the world look very

different it also has a dramatic effect

on climate because much of the land is

located far from the sea the climate of

the interior changes radically from

season to season it gets very hot in the

summertime and extremely cold in the

winter you don't have the moderating

influence of the ocean that we have

today so it's a very different world and

it's a world that in some ways is is

harsher and less hospitable at least to

life on land it's thought that the

climate change caused by pangaea's

formation may have played a role in one

of the largest mass extinctions on earth

this event known as the per mo Triassic

mass extinction wipes out about 90% of

all life on Earth

it's been called the mother of all mass

extinctions I would consider that the

formation of Pangaea with its climate

worsening effects to be a contributing

factor however and not the sole cause of

the mass extinction 250 million years

ago and the supercontinent of pangaea is

breaking up the continents we know and

recognize today begin to take shape over

the next tens of millions of years South

America drifts away from Africa North

America away from Europe

Australia splits off from Antarctica and

heads north to warmer climes the

positions of our continents are becoming

familiar although they're

distinguishable features are not the

world's vast mountain ranges the Alps

and Himalayas and it's great valleys

like the Grand Canyon are yet to form

they will emerge out of one of the

biggest battles in nature the battle

between colliding continents

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earth 100 million years ago the

continental map of the modern world is

gradually becoming recognizable but a

battle is still raging between the

continents that will change the face of

our world forever and create some of the

most extraordinary geological features

on the planet as the continents move

slowly across the earth crust and rock

is dragged back down into the earth at

subduction zones between the tectonic

plates but when continents collide at

the plate junctions sometimes there is a

battle for supremacy if neither plate

will submit and drop down to be consumed

by the mantle then both the continents

slowly smash and grind into each other

these pinch points of continental

collision build mountains

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the Alps are the largest mountain range

in Europe higher than the Rockies the

Alps stretch from France in the West

through Italy Switzerland and Austria to

Slovenia in the east their formation is

a direct result of a continental

collision between Africa and Europe the

story of the Alps begins when the

African plate breaks away from the South

American plate it starts moving toward

Europe without the plate movement there

wouldn't be any mountain on this planet

professor Gerard Stanley of Lausanne

University in Switzerland studies the

processes that built the Alps

the African and Eurasian plates start to

move toward each other trapping a third

smaller Iberian plate between them the

three plates collide the Eurasian Plate

is pushed downward into the mantle

chopping off the Iberian plate but ëthis

si begins to close as the eurasian plate

grinds underneath the African plate it

pushes the tether part of the iberian

plate 600 miles north and many thousands

of feet into the air rocks that started

life on the bottom of the ocean end up

at the top of the alps what's

fascinating to imagine that if you are

on top of the Matterhorn you actually is

staying on top of africa for geologists

africa stops in the alps over the next

100 million years the continents

continue to smash together new mountain

ranges start forming around the globe

the largest the Himalayas form as the

Indian plate charges northward toward

the Eurasian Plate it moves at two

inches per year lining up a head-on

collision the movement of the Indian

plate leads to a clash between two giant

continents and creates some of the

highest structures ever to exist on

earth the incredible power of

continental drift not only builds

mountains

it also sculpts one of the world's most

recognizable landmarks the Grand Canyon

in Arizona

the Grand Canyon is a great scar in the

surface of the earth geologist Ron

Blakey

has been studying the canyon for over 30

years it's just a wonderful place to

come face to face with planet earth the

Grand Canyon is 277 miles long and up to

18 miles wide at its deepest it

stretches down for over a mile

the gorge exposes the interior of the

North American continent it's like

looking through the pages of a book each

layer tells a story about the past

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whatever really neat things about Grand

Canyon is this we go up the walls of the

Grand Canyon since it's like going

through a time machine layer upon layer

of rock reveal the geological history of

North America from present day to two

billion years ago the deeper you go the

older the rocks by studying the layers

Blakey can piece together the history of

the canyon he finds some of the most

interesting evidence at the very top

fossils of ocean creatures Wow this beds

the jackpot here what we have is a

extraordinary example of a Permian sea

floor the most important thing it tells

us with respect to the Grand Canyon is

that this area had to be near sea level

when these rocks formed now it's 7,000

feet above sea level in the room of the

Grand Canyon so something had to happen

either the sea had a fall 7,000 feet and

we're pretty sure that didn't happen or

this landscape had to be uplifted 7,000

feet we're pretty sure that happened 250

million years ago the canyon starts to

form as a result of a collision between

the Pacific and North American plates

they collide with such force the North

American plate thrusts more than two

miles upward what was once seabed rises

over a period of 15 million years to

form a vast plateau far above sea level

it stays that way for millions of years

until it is transformed by water erosion

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six million years ago several hundred

miles south of the canyon plate

movements open up the Gulf of California

to the sea for the first time small

streams in the Rocky Mountains could

empty into the ocean so if we're

starting a stream at 14,000 feet in the

Rocky Mountains and carving down the sea

level and the Grand Canyon just happens

to be in the way the Grand Canyon is

going to get cut out these streams

merged to form what is now called the

Colorado River it cuts down through the

land heading to the Gulf of California

it took a river to carve the canyon the

water has carved down through the rocks

layer by layer by layer removing

material out of the canyon and leaving

the great void that sits behind me the

Grand Canyon is a testament to the

awesome power of the continents in

shaping our world back on our journey

tracing the birth and death of the

continents it is now 20 million years

ago two and a half thousand miles south

of the Grand Canyon another plate

collision is about to take place the map

of the modern world is almost complete

at this time water flowing freely

between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans

still separates North and South America

over many millions of years the Pacific

plate begins sliding under the Caribbean

plate the pressure causes underwater

volcanoes to erupt some explode with

such ferocity that they create a range

of small islands between North and South

America

over the next 17 million years ocean

currents deposit sediment and gaps

between these new islands

gradually the sediment builds up and

compresses to form land bridges between

the islands three million years ago the

Isthmus of Panama a narrow strip of land

finally joins North and South America it

separates the Pacific and Atlantic

oceans the flow of water between the two

stops and ocean currents must take new

routes

this causes yet another change in the

climate of our planet

it changes the movement of warm seas

around the globe disrupting weather

patterns possibly pushing the planet

into an ice age many species are wiped

out the continents as we know them today

are formed creating the nice hospitable

environment for human civilization to

evolve and thrive on planet Earth

but how long will it last the forces

that power plate tectonics are still

active and will tear our continents

apart once again they will build a new

world one that may trigger another mass

extinction and push humanity to the

brink of annihilation

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a view from space reveals Earth's

continents as we know them today there

are seven in total but some are

separated by a political divide rather

than a geographical one Africa Eurasia

is a super continent comprising of

Africa Europe and Asia it stretches from

the Siberian plateau in Russia to the

Cape of Good Hope in South Africa a

spectacular route across three

continents incorporating dramatic

climate change vivid scenery and diverse

cultures however Africa Eurasia isn't

the only super continent on the planet

because the Panama isthmus links North

and South America together they too can

be thought of as one vast landmass and

if the Bering Strait between Russia and

Alaska were to freeze over it would be

possible to walk from Cape Horn in South

America to the Cape of Good Hope in

South Africa a journey of around 25,000

miles but this won't always be possible

for powerful forces deep below the

surface continue to send the continents

hurdling across the globe a process that

started at their birth 4.4 billion years

ago and one which will continue long

into their future what we observing at

the moment is only a snapshot of the

Earth's global cycle that has been

undergoing for last four and a half

billion years probably and will be

undergoing even if you're not around any

the global continental cycle has another

impact on our world it causes many

natural disasters plate movement creates

stress points which lead to volcanic

eruptions as continents split apart

instability at the plate junctions

causes earthquakes that rip apart whole

communities this one on October 8th 2005

in Pakistan ruled Kashmir killed nearly

75 thousand people and left up to 3

million homeless and when plates abduct

into the earth their death throes

produced devastating waves the 2004

Indonesian tsunami is just one

demonstration of the terrifying power

unleashed when plates move

such natural disasters are part of the

continental cycle and they're not going

to stop

plates moving is something we have to

live with there's nothing we can do

about it it's going to happen they're

going to be big earthquakes in

California there's going to be a lot of

damage there's going to be loss of life

in recent years it seems as though

natural disasters powered by the

movement of the continents have been on

the rise but what we are witnessing is

an increase in awareness rather than an

increase in the number or severity of

natural disasters I think what we're

really seeing here is a very raised

consciousness of the public with instant

communication abilities much more

publicity is given to volcanic eruptions

and earthquakes we are observers to only

a very short period of the life of the

earth if we could monitor earthquakes

and volcanic activity caused by plate

movements over millions of years we

would see a very different picture when

you look at something over 10 years you

might have 10 major earthquakes the next

10 years you might not have any but

that's not significant it just is

related to the short period of time that

you're making the observation at when

you start looking at hundreds thousands

and millions of years all that averages

out it's impossible to predict exactly

when the next disaster will occur but it

is possible to predict where it will

happen the plate boundaries

map the location of earthquakes and

volcanoes and they line up with the

cracks between plates plot where these

plates will move over the next tens of

millions of years and the future looks

bleak for many of the world's cities

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so what will our world look like in the

future 50 million years from now the

Atlantic Ocean will widen pushing New

York further away from North Africa

meanwhile in the southern hemisphere

Australia will be on a collision course

with Southeast Asia and in Europe Africa

will head north closing the

Mediterranean Sea a new mountain range

will form where Italy and Greece once

stood known as the Mediterranean

Mountains they will be as big as the

Himalayas extending from Spain across

southern Europe through the Middle East

and into Asia 100 million years in the

future and the power of continental

movements will render the surface of the

earth unrecognizable the Atlantic Ocean

will continue to widen but a subduction

zone will form along its western

shoreline the first sign of it can be

seen today in the Caribbean the Puerto

Rico Trench this trench will grow north

and south along the east coast of North

and South America

this vast subduction zone will consume

the Atlantic Ocean drag in Europe and

Africa back toward the Americas

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250 million years in the future

intergalactic explorers returning to

their home planet will find a world very

different to the one in their records

there will no longer be seven continents

but one gigantic landmass containing

most of the land on earth they could

find it a barren frozen world the

explorers search for the remains of our

cities but when Europe and America

collide any cities along the coastlines

will be gradually destroyed the

geological future of New York is going

to be rather traumatic in the long term

a New York is going to be at the site of

a continental collision North America

and Europe are going to collide with one

another and produce a distinctive suite

of rocks which will eventually be

crumpled between the two continents as

they collide New York and its neighbors

will be crushed and buried beneath the

surface leaving no more than a few

remains in the future geologists will be

able to find remains of New York City

trapped in the rocks themselves either

buildings or plastic bottles or old

autos and their parts all of these

things will be incorporated into the

fossil record and will be recognizable

to a future geologist who knows what she

or he is looking for

because of its similarities to pass

supercontinents this future land mass is

called Pangaea Ultima the final Pangaea

nearly all the land masses in the world

will be joined together an Gaea Ultima

will probably experience climate

extremes freezing winters and scorching

summers this deadly weather could have

devastating effects on all life on Earth

the implications for the human race are

interesting to speculate about certainly

the disposition of the continents over

time will affect Earth's climate and

that will in turn have an influence on

which organisms survive which go extinct

and could be a factor in future mass

extinctions

the world we know is inching slowly

toward its own destruction the processes

that shape the surface of the earth are

never going to change we're going to

have earthquakes we're going to have

volcanoes we're going to have tsunamis

and hurricanes regardless of whether

humans inhabit the planet and so the

planet will always be here probably

plate tectonics will operate for the

foreseeable future or not but even

Pangaea Ultima might not be the end of

the story the forces that created it may

eventually rip it apart and start the

cycle of death and rebirth again but by

then the impact of colliding continents

could have been too much for our species

with our cities destroyed and the

climate severe we may have already left

our planet in search of a safer home

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you