Mongol Ideology - Why Chinggis Wanted to Conquer the World - DOCUMENTARY

Summary

This video explores the Mongol Empire's imperial ideology, examining how its leaders justified their conquests and the belief in their destined world domination. From Chinggis Khan's initial claims of divine support to the empire's expansion under his successors, the script delves into the Mongols' transformation from members of the political order to its self-proclaimed masters, emphasizing the role of military success in shaping their ideology and diplomatic interactions.

Takeaways

• 🌐 The Mongol Empire's imperial ideology was rooted in the belief of divine right, with the Great Khans being seen as chosen by 'Eternal Blue Heaven' to rule over all peoples.
• 📜 The Mongol rulers used imperial seals and letters demanding submission to assert their dominance over Eurasian rulers, reflecting their pursuit of global conquest.
• 🏰 The Mongol Empire's ideology was influenced by earlier nomadic states, sharing the concept of a ruler backed by Tengri, the sky god, and the idea of qut, or divine support.
• 👑 Chinggis Khan's rule was based on personal charisma and the ability to convince followers of his divine support, manifesting in military victories and good fortune.
• 📖 The Mongol Empire's laws, codified in the Yassa, helped Chinggis Khan establish his image as a law-giver and protector, reinforcing his authority.
• 🌳 Chinggis Khan's reign coincided with a unique period of favorable climate conditions, which supported the expansion of the Mongol population and their military campaigns.
• 🔱 Chinggis Khan's initial campaigns were justified with reasons such as revenge or political order, unlike his successors who pursued conquest without the need for justification.
• 👑🌏 Chinggis Khan's successors, particularly Ögedei, solidified the imperial ideology, with Ögedei taking the title of Khaghan and building the capital Qaraqorum to signify imperial continuity.
• 💌 The Mongol Empire's diplomatic letters to other rulers demanded total submission, reflecting a shift from being part of the political order to becoming the international political order itself.
• 🏰🔨 Ögedei's destruction of the Jin Dynasty marked a transition in Mongol ideology, asserting their singular legitimacy as rulers of the world and the need to conquer all who had not submitted.
• 🌏🛡 The Mongol worldview divided the world into submitters and rebels, with military actions seen as punitive expeditions to subdue those in rebellion against Tengri's will.
• 📜 The Mongol Empire's diplomatic interactions were awkward, as they recognized no other legitimate power on earth, viewing all other states as either vassals or targets for conquest.

Q & A

What was the significance of the imperial seals of the Mongol Great Khans?

The imperial seals of the Mongol Great Khans were significant as they marked letters demanding the utter submission of rulers across Eurasia, symbolizing the authority and power of the Mongol Empire.

How did the Mongols' imperial ideology develop over time?

The Mongols' imperial ideology developed from a belief in the support of Heaven, or Tengri, for their rulership, to a belief in their destiny to conquer the world. This ideology was shaped by military successes and the expansion of their empire.

What was the role of Tengri in the Mongol Empire's ideology?

Tengri, the sky god, played a central role in the Mongol Empire's ideology as the divine force that backed the ruler and his dynasty. The ruler's legitimacy was often associated with Tengri's favor, which was believed to manifest through military victories and good fortune.

How did the Mongols justify their conquests initially?

Initially, the Mongols justified their conquests through lengthy explanations and diplomatic pretexts, such as interference in Mongolia, harboring of rivals, and perceived aggressions against them.

What was the significance of Chinggis Khan's title and how did it evolve?

Chinggis Khan's initial title was not indicative of universal rule but of a strong, fierce ruler. It is believed that he may have adopted the title of Khaghan later in life, signifying a higher status and the idea of ruling over a vast empire.

How did the Mongol Empire's perception of itself change from being part of the political order to becoming the international political order?

The change in perception was largely due to the Mongols' military successes and rapid expansion. As they conquered more territories, they began to see themselves as the masters of the world, no longer needing justifications for their conquests.

What was the role of shamans in the Mongol Empire and how did it change over time?

Shamans initially played a significant role in predicting good fortune and successful campaigns. However, after Chinggis Khan's step-brother Kokochu was killed for sowing discord, shamans were no longer allowed to rival the Khan for power, though they remained necessary for religious and ceremonial purposes.

How did the Mongol Empire's ideology and practices evolve under Ögedei Khan?

Under Ögedei Khan, the Mongol Empire solidified its imperial ideology, with Ögedei taking the title of Khaghan, Khan of Khans, and building the imperial capital of Qaraqorum. He also initiated the practice of sending letters demanding submission to rulers around the world, marking a shift towards conquest for the sake of conquest.

What was the concept of 'il' and 'bulgha' in the Mongol Empire's worldview?

In the Mongol Empire's worldview, 'il' represented peace, harmony, and submission, while 'bulgha' meant rebellion. This framework categorized the world into those who had submitted to Mongol rule and those who were in rebellion.

How did the Mongol Empire's diplomatic interactions reflect their belief in singular legitimacy?

The Mongol Empire's diplomatic interactions often involved demands for total submission and the refusal to recognize other states as equals. Even gifts from foreign leaders, like the King of France, were interpreted as signs of submission to Mongol rule.

Outlines

00:00

🏰 Mongol Imperial Ideology and Conquest

The script begins with an exploration of the Mongol Empire's imperial ideology, emphasizing the belief in their divine right to conquer the world, as granted by the 'Eternal Blue Heaven.' This ideology was not present from the empire's inception but developed over time through successful military campaigns. The Mongols' belief system was influenced by earlier nomadic empires, which viewed their rulers as sacred figures backed by Heaven, or Tengri. This concept of qut, or divine support, was crucial for rulership and was manifested through military victories and good fortune. The script also introduces a sponsor, Masterworks, which offers shares in fine art as an alternative investment during times of economic instability.

05:02

🌟 Chinggis Khan's Rule and the Development of Mongol Imperialism

This paragraph delves into the early days of the Mongol Empire under Chinggis Khan, highlighting his personal charisma and the belief in his divine support from Tengri. Chinggis Khan's rule was characterized by his ability to convince his followers of his qut, as demonstrated by his military successes and ceremonial acts that reinforced his pious image. The paragraph also discusses the political structure of the Mongol Empire, where the ruler's power was not absolute but shared with the royal clan. Chinggis Khan's initial campaigns were justified with lengthy explanations, and it was only during the reign of his successors that the Mongols began to embrace the idea of world conquest without the need for justification.

10:07

🛡 Transition from Political Order Members to International Domination

The script describes the shift in the Mongol Empire's approach to conquest from Chinggis Khan's time to that of his successors. While Chinggis Khan required justifications for his military campaigns, his son Ögedei and later rulers abandoned this practice, embracing the idea of the Mongols as the masters of the world. This change was likely due to the empire's continuous military successes, which seemed to confirm their divine mandate. The Mongols began to demand total submission from other states, viewing the world in terms of those who had submitted and those who were in rebellion. This worldview led to a more aggressive and uncompromising stance in their diplomacy and military campaigns.

15:11

🌏 The Legacy of Mongol Imperialism and its Lasting Impact

The final paragraph discusses the lasting impact of the Mongol Empire's imperial ideology, which persisted even after the empire's decline. The Mongols' belief in their singular legitimacy and divine right to rule was reinforced by each victory and submission of other states. This ideology influenced later dynasties, such as the Timurids, who had to justify their rule based on the Chinggisid worldview. The script concludes with a call to action for viewers to subscribe to the channel for more content on the history of the Mongols and acknowledges the support of patrons and members.

Keywords

💡Eternal Blue Heaven

Eternal Blue Heaven refers to the supreme deity or divine force in Mongol belief, often associated with Tengri, the sky god. It symbolizes the divine mandate and support for the ruler, legitimizing the rule of the Great Khans. In the script, it underscores the divine authority claimed by the Mongol Khans over their empire.

💡Great Mongol Ulus

The Great Mongol Ulus refers to the Mongol Empire, a vast territory united under the rule of the Mongol Khans. This term emphasizes the unity and dominance of the Mongol state over the diverse regions it conquered. The script highlights how this empire demanded submission from other rulers, asserting its superiority and control.

💡Chinggis Khan

Chinggis Khan, also known as Genghis Khan, was the founder and first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. His leadership and conquests laid the foundation for the empire's expansion. The script discusses his personal charisma, military victories, and how he established the Mongol Empire's ideology and legitimacy.

💡Tengri

Tengri is the sky god in Mongolian and Turkic mythology, representing the divine power that legitimizes the rule of the Khans. The support of Tengri was believed to manifest through military victories and favorable conditions. The script explains how Chinggis Khan's rule was seen as divinely sanctioned by Tengri.

💡Qut

Qut is a Turkic concept referring to the divine charisma or mandate given to a ruler by Tengri. It signifies the ruler's divine right to govern. In the script, Chinggis Khan's ability to lead and win battles was seen as evidence of his qut, reinforcing his legitimacy as a ruler.

💡Yassa

Yassa refers to the legal code established by Chinggis Khan, which helped consolidate his rule and maintain order within the empire. It included laws, guidelines, and customs that governed the behavior of the Mongol people and their subjects. The script mentions how the yassa contributed to Chinggis Khan's image as a law-giver and protector.

💡Ögedei Khan

Ögedei Khan was the third son of Chinggis Khan and his successor as Great Khan. His reign saw the expansion of the Mongol Empire and the establishment of more structured imperial ideologies. The script highlights his role in solidifying the notion of the Mongols as universal rulers and his contributions to the empire's administration and diplomacy.

💡Khagan

Khagan, or Khan of Khans, is a title used by the supreme ruler of the Mongol Empire, signifying their authority over all other khans. The script discusses how Chinggis Khan and his successors, such as Ögedei, adopted this title to emphasize their unparalleled sovereignty and divine mandate to rule the world.

💡Quriltai

A Quriltai is a traditional assembly or council in Mongol culture, where important decisions, such as the election of a new khan or major military campaigns, were made. The script references a quriltai called by Ögedei Khan, which launched campaigns for further expansion of the empire, demonstrating the collective decision-making process in Mongol governance.

💡Mandate of Heaven

The Mandate of Heaven is a Chinese political and religious doctrine used to justify the rule of the emperor, suggesting that Heaven grants the right to rule based on virtue and success. The script draws parallels between this concept and the Mongol belief in Tengri's support, highlighting how divine favor legitimized and sustained their rule.

Highlights

The command of the universal Khan of the Great Mongol Ulus emphasizes respect and awe for their authority.

The imperial seals of the Mongol Great Khans demanded the submission of rulers across Eurasia.

The Chinggisid Mongol Empire came close to conquering the world, driven by a strong imperial ideology.

Climate played a crucial role in the rise and fall of kingdoms, as seen in the Mongol Empire and modern Europe's energy crisis.

The Mongol Empire's ideology was influenced by earlier nomadic states like the Xiongnu and the Türkic Khaganates.

The concept of sacral kingship and Heaven's backing was central to Mongol and other nomadic empires' rulers.

Chinggis Khan's rule was legitimized through his personal charisma and military victories, seen as Heaven's favor.

Chinggis Khan's enthronement involved significant shamanistic rituals and seeking Tengri's blessing.

The early 13th century's warm and wet climate supported the Mongol Empire's expansion, seen as Heaven's support.

Chinggis Khan did not initially envision world conquest but justified his campaigns through political and personal reasons.

Ögedei Khan's reign marked the shift to viewing the Mongol state as the singular legitimate power on Earth.

The Mongol Empire divided the world into those who submitted and those who rebelled, justifying their conquests.

The destruction of the Jin Dynasty by Ögedei Khan reinforced the Mongols' belief in their universal sovereignty.

The Mongols' worldview saw no other legitimate state but their own, demanding submission from all others.

Chinggisid lineage remained a significant legitimizer in Central Asia, influencing many dynasties and rulers.

The Kings and Generals channel plans more videos on Mongol history, encouraging engagement and support from viewers.

Transcripts

We, by the power  

of Eternal Blue Heaven, universal Khan of the  Great Mongol Ulus— our command. If this reaches  

peoples who have made their submission,  let them respect and stand in awe of it.  

So reads the imperial seals of the Mongol Great  Khans, which marked letters demanding the utter  

submission of rulers across Eurasia for decades.  It is no mean feat to seek the conquest of the  

world, and few states have ever come as close  to the task as the Chinggisid Mongol Empire.  

In today’s episode, we will explore the  Mongols’ imperial ideology and how they  

justified and pursued their conquest of the world.

This video is sponsored by Masterworks.

The mongols’ story is ultimately a  case of climate making or breaking  

a kingdom - a scenario that could  be playing out in Europe today,  

with energy prices skyrocketing for winter, and  Britain is expecting their longest ever recession.

Now, people around the world are scrambling to  preserve their wealth. For older generations,  

that may have meant investing in  gold or real estate, but stable  

gold prices and high mortgage  rates make this unfavourable.

However, there’s a third option, that  Morgan Stanley says often experiences  

less price volatility than stocks: Fine art. A  record breaking art auction earlier this month  

led CNBC to suggest: “the global rich still view  masterpiece art as a hedge against inflation and  

perhaps a safer store of value than increasingly  volatile stocks and crypto currencies.”

That’s why Masterworks is flooded with demand.  They offer shares in contemporary art by the  

greats; from Banksy to Picasso. This art has  outpaced the S&P 500 for the last 26 years.  

And even as the stock market has fallen over  20% this year, Masterworks sold a painting  

for a 17.8% net return just a few weeks ago,  even since our last video sponsored by them.

That brings their last 3 sales to 17,  21, and 33% net returns to investors.  

So it’s no surprise that demand for  Masterworks is so high that there’s  

a wait list. But you can skip it by  clicking the link in the description.

Before delving into the Mongol Empire, we’ll  briefly compare it to earlier nomadic states  

and their ideologies, of which the  Mongols were the ultimate students.  

The Mongols’ founding ideology was not  one specific to the mind of its founder,  

Chinggis Khan. The earlier nomadic empires  based in Mongolia, from the Xiongnu, the Xianbi,  

the Rouran, and the great Türkic Khaganates,  all had a similar view of their empires. One  

of the core tenets was the belief that the  ruler and his dynasty were backed by Heaven,  

generally known as Tengri. This made the monarch,  be they the Chanyu or the Khagan, a sacred figure;  

this concept is called qut in Turkic. Titles  of these rulers often reflected this. During  

the days of Uighur Khaganate, the Uighur ruler  was called tengri qaghan, the heavenly emperor.  

The idea of sacral kingship reached an apogee in  the Khazar Khaganate, where the Khazar Khagan was  

a purely ceremonial role, with actual government  conducted by his nominal deputy, the Qaghan Beğ.  

In the words of Professor Lhamsuren Munkh-Erdene,  the Khazar Khagan reigned but did not rule. 

This sacred kingship justified the rulership  of the Khaghan, and prohibited the spilling  

of his blood; but it did not make the Khaghan  invulnerable. Similar to, and likely influenced  

by, the Chinese concept of the Mandate of  Heaven, just as Heaven could give its backing  

to the ruler, so could it rescind it. Tengri’s  support manifested through military victories,  

good health, and fortune, while his displeasure  resulted in defeats, untimely deaths, disease,  

and environmental catastrophes. Along with his  shamans, the ruler and his people could seek to  

placate Tengri and the spirits that inhabited  the world, but they could not control them.  

Once the Khan lost Tengri’s backing, other  members of the dynasty could seize the rulership  

themselves. These nomadic states were not seen as  the sole property of the Khaghan, but as jointly  

owned by the entire royal clan. All members of the  family were entitled to grazing lands and peoples  

within the state to support themselves, and all  male members could, in theory, be entitled to  

the position of Khaghan, though in practice this  tended to be restricted to the sons or brothers  

of the ruling monarch. Thus, a relative with a  promising military career who desired to overthrow  

an inept ruler, could be seen as more favoured  by heaven than the current Khaghan. If he usurped  

the Khaghan and was rewarded with more victories,  then Tengri’s will was confirmed, as was the case  

with the great Xiongnu ruler, Modun Chanyu when  he killed his own father, or in the Mongol Empire  

when Möngke overthrew the line of his uncle  Ögedei. By extension, any given prince, with  

enough charisma and military backing, could then  be a rival to the power and a possible claimant;  

thus after the fall of the Mongol and Timurid  empires, it was possible for every petty prince,  

such as Babur, the future founder of the Mughal  Empire in India, to lead their own retinues and  

claim they had the inherent right to sovereignty,  accounting for the infamous fragmentation  

many of these nomadic polities suffered from. What we have highlighted here is the importance of  

the notion of Heavenly support, and how rulership  was not based around institutions but on personal  

charisma; the ability to lead men and convince  them Heaven supported the given prince. These  

were just as applicable to the Türkic Khaghanates  as they were to the Mongol Empire. With that said,  

we now may focus properly on the state founded by  Chinggis Khan in 1206. One of the most well-known  

aspects of the Mongol Empire was its oft-stated  belief in the eventuality of its conquest of  

the world; that Eternal Blue Heaven had granted  everything to be overseen by Chinggis Khan and his  

progeny. But where did this belief come from? It  doesn’t seem to be present in the earliest days of  

the Mongolian Empire. Despite it often being said  in many a documentary or shoddy Youtube video,  

there is no evidence that world-conquest was  on the ticket when the Empire was established  

in 1206. As we will demonstrate here, this was a  belief that developed over the early conquests. 

Like previous Khans and Khaghans,  Chinggis' enthronement and rule were  

based on his personal charisma: his ability  to convince his followers that he had qut,  

the support of heaven, which was manifested  in his character and military victories.  

For this, he presented himself as a sort of  shaman, an intermediary with Tengri who on  

important occasions would travel on his own to  the top of holy mountains like Burkhan Khaldun  

to convene and seek Tengri's blessing to ensure  successful campaigns. Sacrifices were overseen,  

proper methods of slaughter, and the appeasement  of nature spirits helped consolidate and maintain  

this good fortune. Publicly engaging in these  ceremonial acts ensured that his subjects saw  

him as a pious monarch taking part in all  the necessary acts of khan-ship. Chinggis  

knew not just how to be the Khan, but to look  the part too. Codifying Mongol laws through the  

yassa helped build his image as a law-giver and  almost fatherly figure, who oversaw, guided, and  

protected his people, seeking vengeance on their  behalf, bringing order and booty in equal measure. 

Initially, Chinggis' enthronement was  overseen by a powerful and charismatic  

shaman, his step-brother Kokochu, known  better by his title of Teb Tenggeri.  

But when Kokochu's influence grew too great  and he began to sow seeds of intrigue between  

Chinggis and his brothers, Chinggis allowed his  youngest brother Temüge to break Kokochu's back.  

While shamans would continue to be necessary to  predict good fortune and successful campaigns,  

they would never again rival the Khan for power.  In a sense, it also served to demonstrate that the  

Khan was more powerful than any shaman, no matter  how much that shaman claimed Heaven’s backing. 

Importantly, Chinggis was also graced with  genuine luck in his timing. A well-known  

paper published in 2014 by Neil Pederson et  al. showed how after a dry and harsh late  

twelve century which acerbated warfare in the  steppes, paleoclimatic data indicates that the  

first quarter of the thirteenth century  was a period of warm and wet weather;  

a long period which remains unique in the  last thousand years of Mongolian history.  

The result was more productive grasslands, a boom  in animal population supporting an accompanying  

baby boom among the Mongols themselves, all  coinciding with Chinggis’ reign from 1206 to 1227.  

While this obviously logistically supported the  Mongol expansion once this generation grew to  

fighting age, it had an important legitimizing  effect, making it appear Heaven’s favour of  

Chinggis Khan was manifesting even in a more  beneficial climate. Chinggis Khan effectively  

embodied every necessary attribute associated  with a great leader in the steppes. A strong  

foundation in Heaven's backing for Chinggisid rule  supported by a genuinely more stable period within  

Mongolia itself was a key component for the early  Mongol campaigns. The peoples of his homeland fell  

in line under his rule and from then on, followed  him and his descendants to the ends of the earth.  

Chinggis Khan never faced rebellion  or desertion from these generals. 

Despite all this, it appears that Chinggis  Khan did not envision himself a world-emperor,  

even in the making. His initial title upon  his coronation was not the lofty khaghan,  

or Khan of khans, but rather Chinggis Khan, which  likely has no connotations of universal rule,  

but of a strong, fierce ruler. Though possibly  taking the title of Khaghan later in life,  

he never appears to have imagined himself as  heir to the earlier Türkic or Uighur Khaganates. 

Furthermore, Chinggis Khan did not conduct  his campaigns in the manner of his successors.  

Unlike his sons and grandsons, all of Chinggis'  campaigns were only launched after lengthy  

justifications. Attacks on the Jin Dynasty,  Qara-Khitai and Tangut Kingdoms were conducted  

only after explaining the causes of war. Jin  interference in Mongolia and their murder of one  

of Chinggis' relations was justification there;  the harbouring of steppe rivals were excuses for  

Qara-Khitai and the Tangut campaigns, and the  assault on the Khwarezmian Empire was of course  

based on the famous massacre at Otrar, followed  by Khwarezm-Shah Muhammad's murder of Chinggis'  

envoys and other actions the Mongols perceived  as aggressive. Even if these justifications at  

times were simply pretexts for war, they served  an essential diplomatic function. Chinggis Khan  

imagined himself as a part of the political order,  not its master; in such an environment, the Mongol  

state had to justify its conquests, and maintain  friendly ties with those he wished to trade with.  

Initial contacts between the Mongols and Khwarezm  had sought to establish economic and trade ties, a  

mutually beneficial relationship rather difficult  to imagine happening under Chinggis’ heirs. Only  

from the reign of his son Ögedei onwards, did the  Mongols begin to abandon such lengthy rationals,  

in favour of conquest for the sake of conquest.  There was no need for justifications, when the  

Mongols were inherently masters of the world. So what caused this switch from being members of  

political order, to becoming the international  political order? Much of this can likely be  

attributed to the very military success the  Mongols enjoyed. As Chinggis campaigned across  

North China up to the borders of India he was met  with victory after victory. The rapid expansion  

of the Mongol Empire seemed to signal that  Heaven had not just decreed Chinggis to be  

master of Mongolia, but of the world too; for  how else could such great victories be explained?  

By the end of his life, Chinggis Khan may  have well appeared as a demigod to his people. 

How much Chinggis personally believed in his  destiny to rule the world cannot be known. He  

certainly did nothing to discourage this belief.  It’s possible that in the aftermath of the victory  

over Khwarezm, he adopted the title of Khaghan, as  indicated by his coins dating to this time. But it  

was his son and successor Ögedei who, as with  so much of the Mongol Empire, solidified this.  

Ögedei and his advisors paid close attention  to crafting an imperial ideology. We know  

unequivocally that from the start of his reign,  Ögedei held the title of Khaghan, Khan of Khans.  

Though Chinggis may have suggested it, it was  Ögedei who built the imperial capital of Qaraqorum  

in Mongolia’s Orkhon Valley. The Orkhon Valley  had been the site of the capitals of the Türkic  

and Uighur Khaghanates, and was seen as a place  of holy and imperial power. Qaraqorum itself was  

situated only a few kilometers away from the ruins  of the former capitals, and undoubtedly this was  

a deliberate effort to associate the Mongols as  the heirs to those days of great imperial glory. 

But whereas Chinggis Khan had needed detailed  justifications to present his conquests as  

revenge as per a proper steppe leader, Ögedei had  no qualms over this. It is in his reign that the  

famous letters of submission began to be sent to  rulers around the world. One of the first recorded  

came in 1231 against the Koreans, where their  total submission was demanded after the likely  

murder of a Mongol representative. They quickly  became standard features of Mongol diplomacy.  

Whereas Chinggis Khan’s initial contacts  with the Khwarezm-shahs sought to establish  

trade relations, no such relationship  could exist under Ögedei. Increasingly,  

the Mongols divided the world into two groups;  those who had submitted, and those who had not.  

In Mongolian, this was expressed as il,  indicating peace, harmony and submission,  

three concepts to the Mongols that were  intertwined; and bulgha, meaning rebellion.  

Within this framework, there was no longer a  need to justify military campaigns, for now,  

all military actions were essentially punitive  expeditions to bring rebel forces to heel.  

Ögedei simply advanced notions ongoing during  his father’s lifetime, and in order to prove  

his worth as heir, stressed his place  as an unassailable master of the world. 

As this was Tengri’s will, anyone who was not  already a subject of the Khan was essentially a  

blasphemer in open rebellion. As historian Timothy  May wrote, the Khan had no allies, only vassals.  

There was simply no other legitimate power on  earth other than the Mongol state. As Great Khan  

Möngke expressed in a letter to King Louis IX of  France in the early 1250s, just as there was one  

God in heaven, so too was there only one ruler  on earth, and that was the Chinggisid monarch.  

Ögedei’s destruction of the Jin Dynasty in  1234 marked the totality of this transition,  

for following this victory over the Mongols’  hated, long-time enemy, he could signal his  

accomplishment over his father, and the  usurpation of Jin’s Mandate of Heaven.  

Following this, he convened a quriltai which sent  armies in all directions to spread Mongol rule as  

far as possible. Ögedei must have imagined the  road was now open to the conquest of as much  

of the world as possible; it was on the basis of  this quriltai that Mongol armies drove into Europe  

by the 1240s. This notion of singular legitimacy  was continually reinforced as more and more states  

either submitted or were destroyed by Mongol  armies, each victory further proof of their claim. 

This worldview provoked awkward diplomatic  interactions. A 1249 embassy sent by the  

King of France, Louis IX, brought gifts  and sought to congratulate the Khan,  

Ögedei’s son Güyük, on his rumoured  conversion to Christianity.  

Instead, they found Güyük dead, the regency  held by his widow Oghul-Qaimish, who declared  

the embassy’s gifts indicated that the King  of France had just submitted to the Mongols. 

This effectively became a self-fulfilling  prophecy. The Mongols recognized no other state  

other than their own, and that Tengri wanted the  Chinggisids to rule all other peoples. Continued  

victories reinforced this; as long as people  continued to submit or fall to the Mongols,  

then Tengri’s backing was confirmed. And  this confirmation fueled their continued  

expansion to subdue more and more people. Even  the civil wars the Mongol Empire suffered in the  

1260s did nothing to assuage this. Mongol rules  maintained their usual haughtiness in diplomacy,  

each Khan proudly referring to his lineage  and himself as the King of the World.  

In the far east, Chinggis Khan’s grandson Khubilai  completed the conquest of China and sent armies on  

fleets over the horizon to bring ever more distant  people under Mongol rule. In the west, on the  

basis of their right to universal sovereignty,  the Il-Khans maintained their desire to crush  

the Mamluks, a belief which continued right  until the fall of the Ilkhanate in the 1330s.  

The Great Mongol Peace in 1304 saw the Chagatai  Khan Du’a express that India was the only region  

the Mongols had left to conquer, a task he hoped  all the khanates would contribute forces to.  

Until the eighteenth century, and in some areas  even later, descent from Chinggis Khan or families  

associated with his dynasty remained the  preeminent legitimizer in Central Asia.  

Dynasties like the Timurids had to justify their  ascension based on the Chinggisid worldview,  

presenting themselves as protectors and inheritors  of Chinggisid claims. Even when Chinggisids were  

no longer in power, such as in early Tsarist  Russia or Qing China, the Chinggisid lineage  

continued to be treated with respect, especially  for dealing with local peoples, for whom the  

heavenly backing of the Chinggisids had not faded. We are planning more videos on the history of  

the Mongols, so make sure you are subscribed and  have pressed the bell button to see them. Please,  

consider liking, commenting, and sharing - it  helps immensely. Our videos would be impossible  

without our kind patrons and youtube channel  members, whose ranks you can join via the links  

in the description to know our schedule, get  early access to our videos, access our discord,  

and much more. This is the Kings and Generals  channel, and we will catch you on the next one.