Pragmatics | Reference and Inference

Summary

This video explores key concepts in pragmatics, focusing on reference and inference. It explains how speakers use referring expressions like proper nouns, noun phrases, and pronouns to identify entities, and how listeners infer meaning based on context and shared knowledge. The video discusses the distinction between referential and attributive use of expressions, the role of context in interpretation, and the importance of social closeness for effective communication. Through examples, the video illustrates how misunderstandings can be avoided by using language properly, ultimately highlighting the significance of context and inference in successful communication.

Takeaways

• 😀 Reference is the act of using words to help a listener identify someone or something in communication.
• 😀 Referring expressions can include proper nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, and deictic expressions (e.g., 'this', 'he', 'her').
• 😀 Inference is the listener's process of using additional knowledge to make sense of implicit meanings in an utterance.
• 😀 Shared knowledge between the speaker and listener makes it easier to identify references and avoid misunderstandings.
• 😀 Context, both linguistic and physical, greatly influences the interpretation of referring expressions.
• 😀 Anaphora refers to the use of a word (usually a pronoun) that refers back to a previously mentioned noun (the antecedent).
• 😀 The distinction between referential use and attributive use of referring expressions can affect how an entity is understood.
• 😀 Misunderstandings can occur when the listener does not have enough context or shared knowledge to understand the speaker’s reference.
• 😀 Deictic expressions, such as ‘look at him’ or ‘take this’, rely heavily on the immediate context to be understood correctly.
• 😀 The use of descriptive expressions (e.g., 'the man with the funny hat') helps the listener infer what is meant when a specific name or entity is unknown.
• 😀 Anaphora, cataphora, and ellipsis are ways of referring to entities in a sentence without explicitly naming them, relying on earlier or later parts of the discourse to clarify the meaning.

Q & A

What is the concept of 'reference' in pragmatics?

In pragmatics, 'reference' refers to the act by which a speaker uses a word or words to help the listener identify someone or something. This is done through referring expressions like proper nouns, noun phrases, pronouns, or even descriptive terms.

What are 'referring expressions' and what forms can they take?

'Referring expressions' are words or phrases used to identify entities. They can take various forms, such as proper nouns (e.g., 'Hawaii'), noun phrases (e.g., 'a beautiful place'), indefinites (e.g., 'a tree'), or pronouns (e.g., 'he', 'she').

What is the difference between 'referential use' and 'attributive use' of referring expressions?

In 'referential use', the speaker assumes that the entity they refer to exists and can be identified (e.g., 'the killer'). In 'attributive use', the speaker is unsure if the entity exists, but refers to anyone who fits the description (e.g., 'any killer').

How does context influence the meaning of referring expressions?

Context, including linguistic context (co-text) and physical environment, plays a crucial role in determining the meaning of referring expressions. For example, the term 'Brazil' might refer to a sports team or a government depending on the context.

What is 'inference' and how does it work in communication?

Inference is the process by which a listener uses additional knowledge to make sense of what is not explicitly stated in an utterance. It's essential for understanding implied meanings and making sense of vague or incomplete references.

Can a referring expression refer to an entity that doesn't physically exist?

Yes, referring expressions can be used to refer to entities that don't exist physically, such as fictional characters or hypothetical situations. For example, 'the 50-meter schnitzel' refers to an imagined entity.

What is 'deixis' in the context of referring expressions?

Deixis refers to expressions that require contextual knowledge or a shared understanding between the speaker and listener. Examples include words like 'here', 'there', 'this', and 'that', which depend on the physical or conversational context to be understood.

What role does 'anaphora' play in communication?

Anaphora involves referring back to a previously mentioned entity within a conversation. It helps maintain coherence by allowing speakers to avoid repetition. For example, 'the man' (antecedent) might later be referred to as 'he' (anaphora).

What is the difference between 'anaphora' and 'cataphora'?

Anaphora refers to a situation where the reference is made after the antecedent is introduced, while cataphora involves referencing an entity before it's explicitly mentioned. Both are forms of cohesion in language.

How does cultural knowledge impact the understanding of referring expressions?

Cultural knowledge significantly affects how referring expressions are interpreted. For example, the term 'Shakespeare' may refer to the famous playwright in some cultures, while in others, it could simply refer to a book or an object, depending on the shared cultural context.