Photosynthesis: Crash Course Biology #8

Summary

This educational video script delves into the intricacies of photosynthesis, a vital process that sustains life on Earth. It explains the two types of reactions: light-dependent, involving chlorophyll and the electron transport chain to produce ATP and NADPH, and light-independent, known as the Calvin Cycle, which uses these energy carriers to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. The script humorously and informatively explores the complex biochemistry, highlighting the role of RuBisCo, a key but inefficient enzyme, and the evolutionary significance of photosynthesis in shaping our atmosphere and ecosystems.

Takeaways

• 🌿 **Photosynthesis is vital**: It's the process that converts sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen, essential for life on Earth.
• 🔬 **Two types of reactions**: Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle).
• 🌱 **Plants' vascular system**: Vascular plants use xylem to transport water and minerals, and stomata for gas exchange.
• 🍃 **Chlorophyll's role**: This pigment in chloroplasts absorbs sunlight, initiating the light-dependent reactions.
• 🔋 **Energy conversion**: The energy from excited electrons is converted into ATP and NADPH, which are used in the Calvin Cycle.
• ⚡ **Electron transport chain**: It involves a series of reactions that capture energy needed for life processes.
• 💧 **Water splitting**: PSII splits water molecules, producing hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen, the latter being essential for respiration.
• 🔄 **ATP production**: A concentration gradient of protons in the thylakoid is used to generate ATP, a primary energy source for cells.
• 🌟 **Re-energizing electrons**: PSI absorbs photons to re-energize electrons, which then contribute to the formation of NADPH.
• 🔄 **Calvin Cycle**: A light-independent process that uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose and other carbohydrates.
• 🚫 **RuBisCo's limitation**: This enzyme, crucial for carbon fixation, is inefficient and produces a toxic byproduct, phosphoglycolate, which plants must manage.

Q & A

What is photosynthesis and why is it essential for life on Earth?

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen. It's essential for life on Earth because it provides oxygen for respiration and serves as the foundation of the food chain, supplying energy to all living organisms.

What are the two types of reactions involved in photosynthesis?

The two types of reactions in photosynthesis are light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions involve the capture of light energy and its conversion into chemical energy, while the light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin Cycle, utilize this chemical energy to produce glucose.

How do plants obtain the water necessary for photosynthesis?

Plants obtain water through their roots, which absorb water from the soil. This water is then transported to the leaves and other parts of the plant through specialized tissues called xylem.

What is the role of stomata in the process of photosynthesis?

Stomata are tiny pores found on the surface of leaves. They play a crucial role in photosynthesis by allowing carbon dioxide to enter the leaf and by enabling the release of oxygen.

What is chlorophyll and how does it participate in photosynthesis?

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plant cells. It is responsible for absorbing sunlight, which is the first step in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The absorbed light energy is used to excite electrons, initiating the process of converting light energy into chemical energy.

Can you explain the structure of a chloroplast and its relevance to photosynthesis?

A chloroplast contains several structures essential for photosynthesis. It has an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and several internal membranous sacs called thylakoids, which are organized into stacks called grana. The thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and other pigments, and the space inside the thylakoids is called the lumen. The stroma is the fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoids where the Calvin Cycle takes place.

What is the purpose of the electron transport chain in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

The electron transport chain serves to extract energy from the excited electrons and convert it into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. This energy is then used in the Calvin Cycle to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose.

What is the role of Photosystem II (PSII) in the light-dependent reactions?

Photosystem II is a complex of proteins and pigments that plays a key role in the light-dependent reactions. It is responsible for capturing light energy and initiating the electron transport chain by exciting electrons through photoexcitation.

What is the Calvin Cycle, and how does it relate to the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis?

The Calvin Cycle is a set of light-independent reactions that occur in the stroma of the chloroplast. It uses the chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH, which were produced in the light-dependent reactions, to fix carbon dioxide into an organic molecule through a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions, ultimately producing glucose.

What is the significance of RuBisCo, and what is its role in the Calvin Cycle?

RuBisCo, or ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, is a crucial enzyme in the Calvin Cycle. It catalyzes the first major step of carbon fixation, where it attaches a molecule of carbon dioxide to ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), initiating the series of reactions that lead to the production of glucose.

Why is the Calvin Cycle sometimes referred to as the 'dark reactions' and what is the correct term for it?

The Calvin Cycle is sometimes referred to as the 'dark reactions' because they do not require light to occur. However, this term is a misnomer as these reactions take place during the day. The correct term is 'light-independent reactions' or simply 'Stage 2' of photosynthesis.

Outlines

00:00

🌿 Photosynthesis Basics and the Role of Chloroplasts

This paragraph introduces photosynthesis as a vital process that sustains life on Earth, converting sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen. It highlights the two types of reactions involved: light-dependent and light-independent reactions, with the latter being the Calvin Cycle. The paragraph explains how plants, particularly vascular plants, obtain water through their roots and transport it to the leaves via xylem, while carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits through stomata. It also describes the role of chlorophyll in absorbing sunlight and the internal structure of chloroplasts, including thylakoids, grana, lumen, and stroma, emphasizing their importance in maintaining concentration gradients for ions and proteins.

05:02

🔬 The Complexity of Light-Dependent Reactions

The second paragraph delves into the intricacies of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, starting with the absorption of a photon by chlorophyll, which excites an electron. It describes Photosystem II (PSII) as a complex of proteins and lipids that facilitate the electron transport chain, extracting energy from excited electrons. The paragraph explains how water is split to replenish lost electrons, producing hydrogen ions and oxygen, which is essential for respiration. It also details the role of the Cytochrome Complex in transferring electrons and pumping protons into the thylakoid, creating a concentration gradient used for ATP synthesis. The paragraph concludes with the role of Photosystem I (PSI) in re-energizing electrons to produce NADPH, summarizing the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and the release of oxygen as a byproduct.

10:06

🌱 The Calvin Cycle: Carbon Fixation and Energy Conversion

The third paragraph focuses on the Calvin Cycle, also known as the light-independent reactions, which use ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide and produce useful compounds for the plant. It begins with carbon fixation, where CO2 is attached to Ribulose Bisphosphate (RuBP) with the help of the enzyme RuBisCo. The paragraph discusses the challenges faced by RuBisCo due to its inefficiency and the production of a toxic byproduct, phosphogycolate, which plants must mitigate. It outlines the process of converting 3-Phosphoglycerate into Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate (G3P) through reduction, which can be used to form carbohydrates. Finally, it explains the regeneration of RuBP to complete the cycle, emphasizing the energy and chemical input required to produce a single G3P molecule that can be used by the plant.

Keywords

💡Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll pigments. It is fundamental to life on Earth, as it is the primary means by which energy from the sun is converted into organic compounds. In the video, photosynthesis is described as a 'magical-nay, SCIENTIFIC ability' that is essential for the survival of all living organisms, including humans.

💡Light-dependent reactions

Light-dependent reactions are the first stage of photosynthesis and occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. They require light energy to proceed and involve the conversion of light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. The video script explains that these reactions are initiated when 'a photon created by the fusion reactions of our sun' hits a molecule of chlorophyll, starting a series of events that lead to the production of energy-rich molecules.

💡Calvin Cycle

The Calvin Cycle, also known as the light-independent reactions or dark reactions, is the second stage of photosynthesis. It does not require light and uses the ATP and NADPH produced in the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide into organic molecules. In the script, the Calvin Cycle is introduced as the 'light independent reactions' and is humorously referred to as 'YES! THAT Calvin Cycle,' emphasizing its importance in the process of photosynthesis.

💡Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in plant cells and some algae, which contain the pigment chlorophyll. They are the site of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy. The video script describes chloroplasts as having a 'complicated internal structure' with components like thylakoids and stroma, which play crucial roles in the light-dependent reactions.

💡Thylakoid

Thylakoids are membrane-bound compartments within chloroplasts that house the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. They contain pigments, including chlorophyll, and protein complexes necessary for the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. The script mentions that 'the thylakoid membranes are phospholipid bilayers' which are essential for maintaining concentration gradients of ions and proteins.

💡Electron transport chain

The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons through a series of redox reactions. In photosynthesis, the ETC is part of the light-dependent reactions, where energized electrons move through the chain, losing energy that is used to pump protons and create ATP. The video script describes the process as 'the electron transport chain, in which energized electrons lose their energy in a series of reactions that capture the energy necessary to keep life living.'

💡ATP Synthase

ATP Synthase is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate, using energy provided by the flow of protons across a membrane. In the context of the video, ATP Synthase operates in the thylakoid membrane, utilizing the proton gradient created by the light-dependent reactions to generate ATP, which is then used in the Calvin Cycle. The script refers to ATP Synthase as an enzyme that 'uses that energy to pack an inorganic phosphate onto ADP, making ATP: the big daddy, of cellular energy.'

💡NADPH

NADPH is a molecule that carries high-energy electrons and is produced during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. It is used in the Calvin Cycle to power the reduction of carbon dioxide into organic molecules. The video script explains that NADPH is produced when 'another enzyme helps combine two electrons and one hydrogen ion with a little something called NADP+', resulting in a molecule that 'exists solely to carry energy around.'

💡RuBisCo

RuBisCo, short for ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the first major step of the Calvin Cycle, where CO2 is fixed into an organic molecule. It is considered one of the most abundant proteins on Earth. The script humorously describes RuBisCo's evolutionary history and its role in the process, stating that 'RuBisCo started getting confused' in an oxygen-rich atmosphere, leading to the production of a toxic byproduct that plants must deal with.

💡G3P

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is a high-energy, three-carbon sugar phosphate that is produced in the Calvin Cycle. It can be used by plants to synthesize glucose, cellulose, and starch. The script mentions G3P as the 'ultimate product of photosynthesis' since it is a versatile compound that can be converted into various carbohydrates needed by the plant. The Calvin Cycle produces G3P using the energy from ATP and NADPH generated in the light-dependent reactions.

Highlights

Photosynthesis is a vital process that converts sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen, essential for life on Earth.

Photosynthesis is a 450 million-year-old process that, despite being inefficient, is fundamental to our existence.

The process consists of light-dependent reactions and light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin Cycle.

Plants absorb water through their roots and transport it to the leaves via xylem tissues.

Carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits through stomata, tiny pores on plant leaves.

Chlorophyll, a pigment in plant cells, absorbs photons from the sun, initiating the light-dependent reactions.

Chloroplasts, unique to plant cells, contain the internal structure necessary for photosynthesis, including thylakoids and stroma.

The thylakoid membrane maintains concentration gradients of ions and proteins, crucial for the light-dependent reactions.

Light-dependent reactions begin with photoexcitation, where electrons absorb energy from photons.

Photosystem II, a complex of proteins and chlorophyll, is part of the electron transport chain in photosynthesis.

Water splitting by Photosystem II produces hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen, which is essential for respiration.

The Calvin Cycle, or light-independent reactions, uses ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide and produce glucose.

Ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCo) is a key enzyme in the Calvin Cycle, despite its inefficiency.

The Calvin Cycle involves carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration phases to produce and recycle carbohydrates.

Photosynthesis results in the production of glucose and other carbohydrates, which are essential for plant growth and energy.

Plants produce oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is critical for animal life.

The process of photosynthesis is complex and involves a series of chemical reactions that convert light energy into chemical energy.

Transcripts

Photosynthesis! It is not some kind of abstract scientific thing. You would be dead without

plants and their magical- nay, SCIENTIFIC ability to convert sunlight, carbon dioxide

and water into glucose and pure, delicious oxygen.

This happens exclusively through photosynthesis, a process that was developed 450 million years

ago and actually rather sucks.

It's complicated, inefficient and confusing. But you are committed to having a better,

deeper understanding of our world! Or, more probably, you'd like to do well on your

test...so let's delve.

There are two sorts of reactions in Photosynthesis...light dependent reactions, and light independent

reactions, and you've probably already figured out the difference between those two, so that's

nice. The light independent reactions are called the "calvin cycle"

no...no...no...no...YES! THAT Calvin Cycle.

Photosynthesis is basically respiration in reverse, and we've already covered respiration,

so maybe you should just go watch that video backwards. Or you can keep watching this one.

Either way.

I've already talked about what photosynthesis needs in order to work: water, carbon dioxide

and sunlight.

So, how do they get those things?

First, water. Let's assume that we're talking about a vascular plant here, that's

the kind of plant that has pipe-like tissues that conduct water, minerals and other materials

to different parts of the plant.

These are like trees and grasses and flowering plants.

In this case the roots of the plants absorb water

and bring it to the leaves through tissues called xylem.

Carbon dioxide gets in and oxygen gets out through tiny pores in the leaves called stomata.

It's actually surprisingly important that plants keep oxygen levels low inside of their

leaves for reasons that we will get into later.

And finally, individual photons from the Sun are absorbed in the plant by a pigment called

chlorophyll.

Alright, you remember plant cells? If not, you can go watch the video where we spend

the whole time talking about plant cells.

One thing that plant cells have that animal cells don't... plastids.

And what is the most important plastid?

The chloroplast! Which is not, as it is sometimes portrayed, just a big fat sac of chlorophyl.

It's got complicated internal structure.

Now, the chlorophyll is stashed in membranous sacs called thylakoids. The thykaloids are

stacked into grana. Inside of the thykaloid is the lumen, and outside the

thykaloid (but still inside the chloroplast) is the stroma.

The thylakoid membranes are phospholipid bilayers, which, if you remember

means they're really good at maintaining concentration gradients of ions,

proteins and other things. This means keeping the concentration higher on one side

than the other of the membrane. You're going to need to know all of these things, I'm sorry.

Now that we've taken that little tour of the Chloroplast, it's time to get down to

the actual chemistry.

First thing that happens: A photon created by the fusion reactions of our sun is about

to end its 93 million mile journey by slapping into a molecule of cholorophyll.

This kicks off stage one, the light-dependent reactions proving

that, yes, nearly all life on our planet is fusion-powered.

When Chlorophyll gets hit by that photon, an electron absorbs that energy and gets excited.

This is the technical term for electrons gaining energy and not having anywhere to put it and

when it's done by a photon it's called photoexcitation, but let's just imagine,

for the moment anyway, that every photon is whatever

dreamy young man 12 year old girls are currently obsessed with, and electrons are 12 year old girls.

The trick now, and the entire trick of photosynthesis, is to convert the energy

of those 12 year old-

I mean, electrons, into something that the plant can use.

We are literally going to be spending the entire rest of the video talking about that.

I hope that that's ok with you.

This first Chlorophyll is not on its own here, it's part of an insanely complicated complex

of proteins, lipids, and other molecules called Photosystem II that contains at least 99 different

chemicals including over 30 individual chlorophyll molecules.

This is the first of four protein complexes that plants need for the light dependent reactions.

And if you think it's complicated that we call the first complex photosystem II instead

of Photosystem I, then you're welcome to call it by its full name, plastoquinone oxidoreductase.

Oh, no? You don't want to call it that?

Right then, photosystem II, or, if you want to be brief, PSII.

PSII and indeed all of the protein complexes in the light-dependent reactions, straddle

the membrane of the thylakoids in the chloroplasts.

That excited electron is now going to go on a journey designed to extract all of its new

energy and convert that energy into useful stuff. This is called the electron transport

chain, in which energized electrons lose their energy in a series of reactions that capture

the energy necessary to keep life living.

PSII's Chlorophyll now has this electron that is so excited that, when a special protein

designed specifically for stealing electrons shows up,

the electron actually leaps off of the chlorophyll molecule onto the protein, which we call a

mobile electron carrier because it's...

...a mobile electron carrier.

The Chlorophyll then freaks out like a mother who has just had her 12 year old daughter

abducted by a teen idol and is like "WHAT DO I DO TO FIX THIS PROBLEM!"

and then it, in cooperation with the rest of PSII does something so amazing and important

that I can barely believe that it keeps happening every day.

It splits that ultra-stable molecule, H2O, stealing one of its electrons, to replenish

the one it lost.

The byproducts of this water splitting?

Hydrogen ions, which are just single protons, and oxygen. Sweet, sweet oxygen.

This reaction, my friends, is the reason that we can breathe.

Brief interjection: Next time someone says that they don't like it when there are chemicals

in their food, please remind them that all life is

made of chemicals and would they please stop pretending that the word chemical is somehow

a synonym for carcinogen!

Because, I mean, think about how chlorophyll feels when you say that! It spends all of

it's time and energy creating the air we breathe and then we're like

"EW! CHEMICALS ARE SO GROSS!"

Now, remember, all energized electrons from PSII have been picked up by electron carriers

and are now being transported onto our second protein complex

the Cytochrome Complex!

This little guy does two things...one, it serves as an intermediary between

PSII and PS I and, two, uses a bit of the energy from the electron to

pump another proton into the thylakoid.

So the thylakoid's starting to fill up with protons. We've created some by splitting water,

and we moved one in using the Cytochrome complex. But why are we doing this?

Well...basically, what we're doing, is charging the Thylakoid like a battery.

By pumping the thylakoid full of protons, we're creating a concentration gradient.

The protons then naturally want to get the heck away from each other, and so they push

their way through an enzyme straddling the thylakoid membrane called ATP Synthase, and

that enzyme uses that energy to pack an inorganic phosphate onto ADP, making ATP: the big daddy

of cellular energy.

All this moving along the electron transport chain requires energy, and as you might expect

electrons are entering lower and lower energy states as we move along. This makes sense

when you think about it. It's been a long while since

those photons zapped us, and we've been pumping hydrogen ions to create ATP and splitting

water and jumping onto different molecules and I'm tired just talking about it.

Luckily, as 450 million years of evolution would have it, our electron is now about to

be re-energized upon delivery to Photosystem I!

So, PS I is a similar mix of proteins and chlorophyll molecules that we saw in PSII,

but with some different products.

After a couple of photons re-excite a couple of electrons, the electrons pop off, and hitch

a ride onto another electron carrier.

This time, all of that energy will be used to help make NADPH, which, like ATP, exists

solely to carry energy around. Here, yet another enzyme

helps combine two electrons and one hydrogen ion with a little something called NADP+.

As you may recall from our recent talk about respiration, there are these sort of

distant cousins of B vitamins that are crucial to energy conversion. And in photosynthesis,

it's NADP+, and when it takes on those 2 electrons

and one hydrogen ion, it becomes NADPH.

So, what we're left with now, after the light dependent reactions is chemical energy

in the form of ATPs and NADPHs. And also of course, we should not forget the most useful

useless byproduct in the history of useless byproducts...oxygen.

If anyone needs a potty break, now would be a good time...or if you want to go re-watch

that rather long and complicated bit about light

dependent reactions, go ahead and do that...it's not simple, and it's not going to get any

simpler from here.

Because now we're moving along to the Calvin Cycle!

The Calvin Cycle is sometimes called the dark reactions, which is kind of a misnomer, because

they generally don't occur in the dark. They occur in the day along with the rest of the

reactions, but they don't require energy from photons. So it's more proper to say

light-independent. Or, if you're feeling non-descriptive...just say Stage 2.

Stage 2 is all about using the energy from those ATPs and NADPHs that we created in

Stage 1 to produce something actually useful for the plant.

The Calvin Cycle begins in the stroma, the empty space in the chloroplast, if you remember

correctly. And this phase is called carbon fixation because...yeah, we're about to

fix a CO2 molecule onto our starting point, Ribulose Bisphosphate or RuBP, which is always

around in the chloroplast because, not only is it the starting point of the Calvin Cycle,

it's also the end-point... which is why it's a cycle.

CO2 is fixed to RuBP with the help of an enzyme called ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate carboxylase

oxidase, which we generally shorten to RuBisCo.

I'm in the chair again! Excellent!

This time for a Biolo-graphy of RuBisCo.

Once upon a time, a one-celled organism was like "Man, I need more carbon so I can make

more little me's so I can take over the whole world."

Luckily for that little organism, there was a lot of CO2 in the atmosphere, and so it

evolved an enzyme that could suck up that CO2 and convert inorganic carbon into organic carbon.

This enzyme was called RuBisCo, and it wasn't particularly good at its job, but it was a

heck of a lot better than just hoping to run into some chemically formed organic carbon,

so the organism just made a ton of it to make up for how bad it was.

Not only did the little plant stick with it, it took over the entire planet, rapidly becoming

the dominant form of life.

Slowly, through other reactions, known as the light dependent reactions, plants increased

the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere. RuBisCo, having been designed in a world with

tiny amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere, started getting confused.

As often as half the time RuBisCo started slicing Ribulose Bisphosphate with Oxygen

instead of CO2, creating a toxic byproduct that plants then had to deal with in creative

and specialized ways.

This byproduct, called phosphogycolate, is believed to tinker with some enzyme functions,

including some involved in the Calvin cycle, so plants have to make other enzymes that

break it down into an amino acid (glycine), and some compounds that are actually useful

to the Calvin cycle.

But plants had already sort of gone all-in on the RuBisCo strategy and, to this day,

they have to produce huge amounts of it (scientists estimate that at any given time there

are about 40 billion tons of RuBisCo on the planet) and plants just deal with that toxic byproduct.

Another example, my friends, of unintelligent design.

Back to the cycle!

So Ribulose Bisphosphate gets a CO2 slammed onto it and then immediately the whole thing

gets crazy unstable. The only way to regain stability is for this new six-carbon chain

to break apart creating two molecules of 3-Phosphoglycerate, and these are the first stable products of the calvin cycle.

For reasons that will become clear in a moment, we're actually going to do this to three

molecules of RuBP.

Now we enter the second phase,

Reduction.

Here, we need some energy. So some ATP slams a phosphate group onto the 3-Phosphoglycerate,

and then NADPH pops some electrons on and, voila, we have two molecules of Glyceraldehyde

3-Phosphate, or G3P, this is a high-energy, 3-carbon compound that plants can convert

into pretty much any carbohydrate. Like glucose

for short term energy storage, cellulose for structure, starch for long-term storage.

And because of this, G3P is considered the ultimate product of photosynthesis.

However, unfortunately, this is not the end. We need 5 G3Ps to regenerate the 3 RuBPs that

we started with. We also need 9 molecules of ATP and 6 molecules of NADPH, so with all

of these chemical reactions, all of this chemical energy,

we can convert 3 RuBPs into 6 G3Ps but only one of those G3Ps gets to leave the cycle,

the other G3Ps, of course, being needed to regenerate the original 3 Ribulose Bisphosphates.

That regeneration is the last phase of the Calvin Cycle.

And that is how plants turn sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into every living thing

you've ever talked to, played with, climbed on, loved, hated, or eaten. Not bad, plants.

I hope you understand. If you don't, not only do we have some selected references below

that you can check out, but of course, you can go re-watch anything that you didn't get

and hopefully, upon review, it will make a little bit more sense.

Thank you for watching. If you have questions, please leave them down in the comments below.