人類的存在有何目的?一套解釋萬物的哲學理論?世界的本質為何?世界為何存在?亞里斯多德的百科全書式哲學 | 四因說 | 潛能理論 | 形上學 | 實體學 | 哲學爽歪歪EP6
Summary
TLDR本视频介绍了亚里士多德的哲学思想,包括他的四因说、潜能论和形而上学。亚里士多德认为,理解事物的本质需要关注其结果而非起源,他区分了自然物与人造物,并强调形式的重要性。他还提出了实体的概念,认为人类共享一个灵魂,类似于现代科学中的基因。这些理论对后世哲学产生了深远影响。
Takeaways
- 📚 亚里士多德是古希腊的哲学家,他的思想深刻影响了西方哲学的发展。
- 🌍 亚里士多德出生于马其顿,非雅典公民的身份使他能从更广泛的角度思考政治哲学。
- 🎓 他在柏拉图学院学习了20年,但并未继承学院领导位置,之后离开雅典,研究动物学和植物学。
- 👑 亚里士多德曾被马其顿的菲利普二世邀请成为亚历山大大帝的导师,实现了柏拉图理想中的哲学家统治或教育君主的理念。
- 🏫 回到雅典后,亚里士多德创立了自己的学院——吕克昂,这个词在法语中仍然存在,即高中(lycée)的词源。
- 🤔 亚里士多德认为人类与动物的区别在于,人类从孩童时期就有一种对世界的好奇心,这种好奇心是连接人类与世界的桥梁。
- 📝 他提出了“四因说”,即物质原因、形式原因、动力原因和目的原因,用以解释世界的变迁。
- 🌳 亚里士多德区分了自然物和人造物,认为自然物内含生长的力量,而人造物则需要人为赋予变化的原则。
- 🔧 亚里士多德强调形式原因的重要性,认为形式原因(即事物的逻辑)是事物的本质。
- 🏗️ 他的哲学影响了对社会分工的看法,认为形式的创造者(如建筑师)比执行者(如工人和奴隶)更重要。
- 🌿 亚里士多德的生物学观点和目的论影响了他对自然和人类活动的看法,认为所有事物的发展都是朝向某种目的。
- 📖 亚里士多德的形而上学是对自然现象背后不变事物的研究,他认为哲学家应该研究世界变化背后的最基本存在。
Q & A
亚里士多德是如何理解人类与动物的区别的?
-亚里士多德认为人类与动物的区别在于人类从孩童时期就有一种好奇心,想要了解自然现象背后的原理。而动物,如猫狗,不会对自然的变化感到困惑。人类有一种与世界奇妙的关系,对世界好奇,而世界也为人类提供答案,仿佛人类与世界是为彼此而生的。
亚里士多德提出的“四因说”包括哪些内容?
-亚里士多德的“四因说”包括:材料因(material cause),形式因(formal cause),动力因(efficient cause)和目的因(final cause)。这四种原因共同解释事物存在和变化的原因。
亚里士多德是如何解释人造物品和自然物品之间的区别的?
-亚里士多德认为人造物品和自然物品之间的区别在于自然物品含有内在的生长力量,例如种子内在的力量使其成为植物。而人造物品必须由人赋予变化的原则,例如将木材制成床,这需要工匠先将床的形式存在于脑中,然后按照这个形式去加工木材。
亚里士多德对于自然界中事物发展的目的性是如何理解的?
-亚里士多德认为自然界中的事物都是朝着某个特定目的发展的。例如,植物无论在地球上的哪个地方生长,都会朝向阳光。他认为这种目的性是自然赋予的,并且这种目的性是事物存在和发展的根本原因。
亚里士多德是如何看待理性在人类本性中的角色的?
-亚里士多德认为人类的本性是理性和创造力的结合。人类天生具有理性,能够构想解决问题的一系列方案,并通过手的创造来实践自己的理性计划。因此,理性是人类实现自身潜能的关键。
亚里士多德的潜能理论如何影响了后来的哲学家?
-亚里士多德的潜能理论对后来的哲学家,如黑格尔和马克思产生了深远影响。黑格尔发展了主奴辩证法来批评亚里士多德,而马克思则受到亚里士多德潜能理论的启发,认为资本主义生产的商品如果不能被劳动者购买,那么这些商品只是“潜在”的商品,其价值无法被“实现”,可能导致市场崩溃和经济危机。
亚里士多德是如何解决帕门尼德关于变化不可能的难题的?
-亚里士多德通过区分潜在和实现来解决帕门尼德的难题。他认为变化是可能的,因为人类和其他生物从一开始就以潜在的形式存在。例如,一个人在成为音乐家之前就具有学习音乐的潜能,老师的作用是帮助学生实现这种潜能,而不是从无中创造音乐家。
亚里士多德的本体论(Metaphysics)的核心思想是什么?
-亚里士多德的本体论探讨的是自然界变化背后的恒常本质。他认为哲学家应该研究世界变化背后的不变事物,因为这些事物是最根本的存在。他提出了“实体”(Ousia)的概念,指的是可以独立存在的事物,是事物的本质。
亚里士多德是如何区分实体和属性的?
-亚里士多德区分实体和属性的方法是基于它们是否能独立存在。实体是可以独立存在的事物,而属性则不能。例如,一匹马是一个实体,它的颜色(属性)则不能独立存在,它总是依附于某个实体上。
亚里士多德对于社会分工的看法是什么?
-亚里士多德认为社会分工中,建筑师比工人更重要,因为建筑师是形式的拥有者,而工人和奴隶只是负责处理材料。他认为知识比技术更高级,因为形式优于物质。
亚里士多德对于人类如何实现最佳生活的看法是什么?
-亚里士多德认为人类实现最佳生活的方式是通过实践理性和道德美德。他认为通过理解和实践伦理学的原则,人们可以达到幸福和满足的生活状态。这将在下一个视频中进一步讨论。
亚里士多德对于人类灵魂的看法有何独特之处?
-亚里士多德认为整个人类只有一个灵魂,人们共享这个灵魂。这个灵魂不是个体的灵魂,而是赋予人类形式和生命原则的共同实体。这与现代科学中的基因DNA概念相似,DNA的排列组合赋予生命不同的形式,而人类的logos(本质)也可以被理解为生命的发展方向。
Outlines
📚 亚里士多德的哲学与四因说
本段落介绍了亚里士多德的生平和哲学思想。亚里士多德是古希腊哲学家,曾在柏拉图学院学习20年,后因失望离开雅典,研究动物学和植物学。他被马其顿的菲利普二世邀请成为亚历山大大帝的导师。亚里士多德回到雅典后创立了自己的学院——吕克昂学院。他提出了人类与动物的区别在于人类对世界的好奇心,以及他的四因说,包括物质原因、形式原因、动因和目的原因。亚里士多德认为,所有事物的存在都是这四种原因的结合,并且强调形式原因是最重要的,因为它体现了事物的本质。
🌿 形式与物质的关系
这一段落探讨了形式和物质的关系。亚里士多德认为,形式比物质更重要,因为物质会生灭,而形式可以是永恒的。他用海豚和人类的例子来说明,形式只能通过其固有的数据实现,人类无法通过手术变成海豚。亚里士多德还提出了形式是变化的驱动力,以及他的因果观念,认为变化是潜能到实现的过程。他还讨论了现代科学对因果关系的理解,以及亚里士多德如何通过潜能和实现的概念来解释变化的可能性。
🤔 人的理性与自然
本段讨论了人的理性和创造力是人的本性。亚里士多德认为,人天生具有理性,能够构思解决问题的方案,并通过双手实践自己的理性计划。他强调,人的本性是理性和实践理性的双手。亚里士多德还提出了自然赋予人类的手与理性相匹配的观点,因为手是行使人类理性能力的关键。此外,他还讨论了资本主义的非理性,以及如何根据亚里士多德的哲学来构建一个理性的社会。
🌟 亚里士多德与柏拉图的哲学差异
这一部分阐述了亚里士多德与他的老师柏拉图在哲学上的根本差异。柏拉图认为理念是永恒存在的世界,而亚里士多德则认为理念应该逐渐发展和实现。亚里士多德提出了潜能理论,影响了后来的黑格尔和马克思的哲学。他还讨论了资本主义的矛盾,以及如何通过实现潜能来克服这些矛盾。此外,亚里士多德的形而上学思想,即寻找变化背后不变的真实,也在这部分进行了探讨。
🏛️ 亚里士多德的形而上学与实体观
本段落深入探讨了亚里士多德的形而上学和实体观。亚里士多德认为,哲学家应该研究世界变化背后的不变事物,因为它们是最基本存在。他区分了依赖性存在和独立存在的事物,称独立存在的事物为“实体”。他还探讨了实体与人类语言的对应关系,以及这种关系对西方哲学历史的影响。亚里士多德晚年开始放弃将有机体视为主要实体,转而认为人类的灵魂是实体,这与现代科学中的基因DNA代码有相似之处。
🎓 亚里士多德的伦理学与人性观
这部分简要介绍了亚里士多德的伦理学和人性观。亚里士多德的哲学不仅包括了对自然哲学和形而上学的探讨,还包括了对人类如何生活得最好的思考。他的伦理学和对人性的看法将在下一集中详细讨论。
Mindmap
Keywords
💡哲学
💡亚里士多德
💡四因说
💡潜能
💡形而上学
💡实体
💡自然哲学
💡目的论
💡逻辑
💡伦理学
💡政治哲学
Highlights
Aristotle是古希腊的哲学家,他的哲学思想深刻影响了西方哲学的发展。
Aristotle出生于马其顿,非雅典公民的身份让他能从更中立的角度思考政治哲学。
Aristotle在柏拉图学院学习了20年,但并未继承学院的领导位置,这使他离开雅典,转向对动物学和植物学的研究。
Aristotle曾担任亚历山大大帝的导师,教授哲学,这体现了柏拉图关于哲学家统治或教授哲学的理想。
Aristotle在自己的学院Lyceum中教授哲学,该词在法语中仍以lycée的形式存在,代表高中。
Aristotle认为人类与动物的区别在于,人类从童年时期就有一种对世界的好奇心。
Aristotle提出了“四因说”,用以解释世界上所有的变化,包括物质原因、形式原因、动因和目的原因。
Aristotle强调形式原因的重要性,认为它是事物的本质,这一点与中国古代的“道”有相似之处。
Aristotle的潜能理论区分了潜在和实现,强调变化是潜能到实现的过程,这一点对后来的黑格尔和马克思哲学产生了影响。
Aristotle的物理学和形而上学思想,挑战了当时古希腊人对自然现象的神话解释,推动了科学思维的发展。
Aristotle认为实体(Ousia)是存在的根本,它们是独立存在且不依赖于其他事物的。
Aristotle的哲学思想对西方的逻辑学和语言哲学产生了深远的影响,他认为语言的结构反映了世界的构造。
Aristotle在后期的哲学思考中,开始从生物学的实体转向对人类灵魂的探讨,认为灵魂是人类的本质。
Aristotle的形而上学探讨了变化背后的不变本质,即事物的最终原因或目的。
Aristotle的伦理学和人性观点将在下一集中介绍,探讨如何过上最佳的生活。
Aristotle的哲学思想对当代社会仍有重要启示,特别是在理解事物的本质和发展过程方面。
Aristotle的哲学贡献不仅在于理论的创新,还包括对当时社会现象的深刻洞察和批判。
Transcripts
Philosophy With SuperY
Each episode introduces you to a philosophical thinker
The series finally restarted
Last episode we introduced Plato
So today I'm going to introduce you to Plato's students
Aristotle
The Encyclopedic Philosophers of Ancient Greece
Aristotle was a Macedonian born in the Greek colonies
not from athens
this point is very important
Because he didn't actually get the citizenship of Athens
This allowed him to think about political philosophy from a Gentile perspective
He went to Plato's Academy of Athens at the age of 17 to study for 20 years
after plato's death
The Academy of Athens was taken over by Plato's nephew Speusippus
Aristotle did not inherit the head
So disappointed to leave Athens
Go to various islands to study zoology and botany
at the age of 40
Invited by King Philip II of Macedon to be a tutor
Teaching Alexander the Great in Philosophy
This allowed Aristotle to realize Plato's ideal
Plato believes that to build an ideal country
Let the philosopher be the emperor
Or teach the emperor philosophy
Later Aristotle returned to Athens
Founded his own academy Lyceum
This word still exists in French today.
French high school is called lycée
So what kind of philosophy did Aristotle teach in the academy?
aristotle thought
The difference between humans and animals is that
Human children have a curious desire from childhood
Your dogs and cats won't be confused by changes in nature
But humans want to know the principles behind natural phenomena
And when man studies everything
Discovered that there is indeed a set of truths behind the world for human beings to understand
So man has a wonderful relationship with the world
curious about the world
And the world also provides answers to human beings
As if man and the world were born for each other
The desire to be curious is the bridge that connects human beings with the world
When will people's curiosity be stimulated?
as he observed changes in nature
For example the ancient Greeks were curious
Why do you plant a tree in the ground and it grows a tree
But you put a bed in the ground and it doesn't grow a bed
Obviously the bed is also made of wood.
This means that there is a difference between natural objects and man-made objects
flora and fauna in nature
principle of change
From a seed to a plant there is inherent power to grow
The principle of movement of this organism
defined by Aristotle as nature
So we can say that being a man is natural for little boys
But man-made things must be endowed by man with the principle of change
For example one can turn wood into a bed
But how did wood become a bed?
Of course, the craftsman has the form of the bed in mind first and then transforms the wood
Therefore, the principle of change of man-made
form in the human brain
On the basis of this division
Aristotle is about to start explaining all the changes in the world
He thinks it can all be answered with a set of theories
called "Four Reasons"
When our curiosity is piqued to ask why
According to Aristotle, there are 4 ways to answer
For example we ask why the house exists
For a house to exist, there must be building materials
Aristotle called "material cause"
But building materials don't automatically turn into houses
Must first have the blueprint form of the house, the interior design
This is called "formal cause"
But if you have building materials and forms, you won’t be able to build a house by yourself.
You also need architects, craftsmen
These people provide the motivation so they are called "motivators"
But the house was built and there was still no explanation: why do we have this house?
So there needs to be a "purpose cause"
Explain the purpose of the house
Aristotle believes that all things come into existence simultaneously with these four causes
Indispensable
So to understand how the world works
we have to clarify when we talk about the reason
Which of these four reasons are you talking about?
After the scientific revolution in the 17th century
Western science tries to explain everything with material cause
Believes that everything is made of atoms
Do another experiment to break atoms down into smaller elementary particles
think that this grasps the reason of the composition of things
But for Aristotle
Material causes alone are not enough to explain the world
because if everything could be reduced to atoms
Then why do some atoms develop into animal flesh and organs
Some atoms become human flesh, organs
There must be a force that organizes the atoms into different forms
This leads to the difference in the life structure of animals and humans
This force is the cause of form
Aristotle believed that the formal cause is the most important of the four causes
because it embodies the essence of a thing
Ancient Greek called logos
Logos can be translated into words and principles
In fact, it is somewhat similar to the Chinese "reason"
Because in Chinese, "Tao" also means to speak
The formal cause is the logos of a thing
If it does not develop according to the logos of a thing
the thing would not be itself
For example, the logos of pasta are derived from the chef's knowledge
recorded in the recipe
When the chef prepares the ingredients, only the ingredients cause
It is also necessary to give these ingredients an order according to the recipe
Turn them into pasta form
If you didn't follow the recipe step by step
What you end up with can turn out to be like shit
Of course the form also depends on the material
For example, the form of a dolphin cannot be realized with human material
An episode of South Park
It's just someone having surgery to turn themselves into a dolphin
All I do is change my shape to look like I'm inside
Of course it failed
Because the form of the dolphin can only be realized by the data of the dolphin
Man cannot become a dolphin
But form is still more important than substance
Because matter is born and dies
but form can be eternal
no individual can be immortal
every generation dies
But there's one thing that goes on and on
is the form of species
Humans have survived for tens of thousands of years and no one can survive
Human matter has been experiencing death
But the human form remained
So what is really immortal is the form
Aristotle thought this was why plants and animals reproduce
Because we want to pass on the form to the next generation
emphasis on form
Also influenced Aristotle's views on the division of labor in society
Aristotle believes that architects are more important
Construction workers, slaves are secondary
because the architect is a man of form
But workers and slaves are only responsible for processing data
What architects learn is not steel and concrete but the form and structure of buildings
It is also from Aristotle
The division of disciplines in the West began to have high and low points
Knowledge is more advanced than technology
Because form is superior to matter
At the same time, the form not only reflects the logos of one thing
It also drives the organism to develop into itself
Like a seed trying to grow into a big tree
only when it matures into a tree
it really shows the form of the species
so it can be said
The form is also the cause of the change
the driving force
Here we need to clarify a concept
Changes as we moderns understand
In fact, it has been influenced by the philosopher David Hume
we all thought
Things change because of an event that happened before
So an event is the source of the motivation
There is a problem with this view of causality:
so many events in history
How do you trace which is the cause and effect?
aristotle thinks wrong
There is only one event in the world
is change
the real problem is
What is the purpose of this change
For example, the form of a house should be able to achieve
There must be the architect as the moving cause and the brick as the material cause
But we can imagine a situation where
Architects have blueprints in mind but never realize them
Bricks never came in handy
In this case Aristotle would say
Both architects and bricks are not realizing their potential
And the so-called change is the realization of potential
when architects become architects building houses
When bricks become bricks taken to build houses
These two things are actually the same thing
It is the form of the house that changes from potential to realization
so not a lot of events
There is only one event happening here
It is realized in the form of a house
So more precisely
The principle of dynamic cause is still formal cause
only through the intermediary
For example, when a teacher teaches students, the teacher is the motivation
The knowledge that the teacher possesses is the form
The student's soul is like the material
Teachers use knowledge to transform students' souls
So the focus of education is not on the teacher
It is the knowledge that students absorb
Finally, there is a very important final cause (telos)
Aristotle believes that the final cause will determine the development of form
To understand the purpose of a thing's existence
can be studied in its fullest and most complete form
you can see why you had to go through different stages before
For example, why is the structural foundation of the house made of cement and the roof made of wood?
This cannot be answered with material
It's not because the cement is heavier so it's on the bottom, and the wood is lighter so it's on the top
but because people are going to live in houses
there must be a secure foundation
Therefore, the purpose of making people live safely determines the form of the house
Aristotle believed that more than man-made objects
purposeful cause
The existence of all things in nature develops towards a certain purpose
The most intuitive look
Plants grow in the same direction no matter where on earth
is where the sun shines
? ? ?
Or the human species has a feature that other primates don't have
That is, the human thumb can easily touch the other fingers
Make tools easy to master
These are called "opposable thumbs"
here comes the problem
how to explain this particular form of human
Contemporary biologists explain from an evolutionary perspective
think it's because primate hands need to adapt to climbing trees
The human hand evolved to create tools and transform the living environment
But Aristotle didn't teach evolution
teleology
Nature endows human beings with hands to match human rationality
Because the hand is the key to exercising the human capacity for reason
People are born with rationality and can conceive a set of solutions to problems
Then practice your own rational plan by making tools with your hands
So human nature is the hands of rationality and creativity
You won't see fish, birds grow arms
because they are irrational
Of course you don't need a pair of hands
but people are rational
If nature itself is also rational
it should give human hands
We can imagine an irrational nature
It endows humans with reason but does not give humans hands to realize their own ideas
Such a person is crippled
incapable of practicing one's own humanity
This world is irrational
Because he created two contradictory things
that's why
Marx said capitalism is irrational
Because capitalism on the one hand wants to maximize efficiency
But on the other hand, it deprives laborers of their means of production
so that labor cannot really achieve maximum efficiency
Marx on this
Influenced by Aristotle
think that to create a rational society
In order to be in line with rational human nature
And for Aristotle
The complete human form must have the hands of reason and practical reason
we can conversely think
if a scientist
Children who spend their lives studying only humans
He didn't know that children can become adults with rational abilities
Thought humans were forever in child form
Then the scientist's definition of human nature must be incorrect.
because he missed the end cause
One must look at a fully developed human to truly find the definition of a human being
Aristotle's purpose
had an important impact on the history of philosophy
is to use results to explain the essence of things
instead of origin
The truth is not hidden in the origin but in the result
So Hegel said: The essence of philosophy is to look back
The whole of human history is like the process of changing from a child to an adult
The task of philosophy is to answer
What is the significance of the development of human beings in the past thousands of years to today
But contemporary science has forgotten the end cause
Stop believing that natural development has a purpose
Think that everything is just evolution to adapt to the environment
The purpose of many human activities in today's society is even distorted
Why do chefs cook?
It should be for people to eat and satisfy
Why do architects build houses?
It should be for people to live comfortably
Why do teachers teach?
It should be to enable students to gain more knowledge
But in contemporary capitalist society
Chefs don't cook to satisfy people
but to make more money
So cutting corners in the food causes food safety problems
Builders build houses not for people to live in but for real estate speculation
So a bunch of houses were built and they turned out to be empty
Teachers do not teach to satisfy students' thirst for knowledge
It is to help cram schools and schools to fight for the enrollment rate
We will discover many problems in contemporary society
In fact, it's all because of forgetting the purpose.
After putting forward the theory of four causes
Now Aristotle has another challenge
ancient greeks were confused
Why we eat bread and grow human flesh
How can human flesh come from something that is not human flesh?
The philosophy behind this is
How is change possible?
This conundrum actually has a more powerful formulation
from the philosopher parmenides
He said change is impossible
Because a thing needs to exist, it needs a horse to create something out of nothing, and it needs a horse to create something out of something
if the first case
It started with nothing
then it is impossible to create something out of nothing
if the second case
something existed in the beginning
Then there is no problem generated
So the changes seen in daily life are all illusions
How did Aristotle solve Parmenides' puzzle?
He said suppose there is a person who doesn't understand music
After learning music theory from the teacher, I understand music theory
Is this something out of nothing?
wrong
Even people who don't understand music have the potential to learn music
This potential has always been there
It's just that you can't observe it
A teacher does not create a person who understands music out of nothing
It's about realizing the potential of music out of this person.
What does not appear to exist on the surface actually exists in the form of potential
same
All human beings begin as potentialities
father provides sperm
mother offers womb
give birth to your embryo
But you're not legally alone
in the mother's belly
How could a person who did not exist suddenly become a person?
Because man slowly develops into an embryo in a latent way
Rerealize as a human
change is possible
because the human form already existed before the change took place
Aristotle made this potential/realized distinction very useful
such as in the workplace
The company is not optimistic about you and thinks you are incompetent
but you are really incapable
It still has potential, but no chance of realizing it.
According to Aristotle
The environment must also provide opportunities, incentives to realize the potential of employees
Just like the teacher's guidance is needed, the potential of the students will be stimulated
It takes an architect to power it so wood becomes a house
here it shows
Aristotle was very different from his teacher Plato
Plato believes that the ideal is the pre-existing eternal world
always there
But Aristotle thought
The rationale should be gradually developed and realized
And this change doesn't happen automatically
A facilitator is needed to initiate the change
potential theory
Later, it influenced the philosophy of Hegel and Marx
Marx said
If a railroad track is built, but no trains run
that's at best a potential railroad track
without realizing its real function
Likewise, capitalism produces a bunch of goods
But give laborers low wages so that they can't afford goods
Many items cannot be sold
Just a "potential" commodity
In this way, the value of the commodity cannot be "realized"
capital will not be able to make a profit
May eventually lead to market crash, economic crisis
This is the self-contradiction of capitalism
Similarly, Taiwanese builders built a bunch of houses
but no one can afford it
The house should be used to live in, this is the "nature" of the house
But these empty houses are not living up to their potential
So Marx would say that capitalism violates nature
another philosopher hegel
developed the master-slave dialectic to criticize Aristotle
in ancient greek society
Philosophers are slave masters
they don't need to spend time working
Free time to conceive philosophy and realize human rationality
Aristotle thought
Mathematics originated in Egypt
because the ancient Egyptian priests had leisure time
Slave masters lived a better life
satisfies human curiosity
But Hegel says just the opposite
The master does not need to work, the potentialities in the soul are forever blocked
Because they only talk on paper
Tell everyone the philosophy of potential
This is what Aristotle was doing
The master only has one mouth
by contrast
because slaves are working
Instead, they can realize the potential in their souls
In the process of building a house, create the ideal shape of the house
So it looks like the master is enslaving the slave
But there are no slaves, masters are nothing
This is Haig's master-slave dialectic
Inspiration is derived from Aristotle's philosophy of potential
Finally we come to the hardest part of Aristotle's philosophy: Metaphysics
what is metaphysics
Metaphysics is the science after mythology and science
When the ancient Greeks studied natural phenomena
Like to ask what is the reason for the change
For example, what is the cause of thunder
The interpretation of the Age of Mythology is:
It thunders because Zeus is angry
so different natural phenomena
Can be explained by different Olympian gods
But after the first philosophers appeared
Begin to discover the laws of nature
Thunder is always accompanied by lightning
So come up with a theory
Thunder and lightning are the result of clouds rubbing against each other and catching fire in the atmosphere
People no longer use gods to explain change
Instead, a simple principle is used to explain the change
This is the beginning of scientific thinking
Use "one" to explain "many"
Instead of using "many" to explain "many"
But Aristotle was still not satisfied
If thunder is just a change of cloud
clouds from water molecules
It turns into water after it rains
The entire water cycle is constantly changing.
So what is the constant behind it?
This question is the starting point of metaphysics
What is the real constant behind the changes in the experience world?
Because "Metaphysics" is the next book after "Physics"
So it's called Metaphysics
meaning after physics
aristotle thought
Philosophers must study the unchanging things behind the world's changes
Because they are the most fundamental existence
That is to say, existence is hierarchical
some things don't exist independently
like colors, numbers, shapes
you can say white exists
But white can only exist as the color of something
You won't see white floating in the air alone
They are not the object of study of metaphysics
This point is very important
Because this is the big difference between Aristotle and Plato
Plato said
Everything in the experiential world is unreal
The perfect archetype, whiteness, and justice exist only in the realm of ideals
And only the soul can know those ideals
now aristotle says no
only one world exists
is nature
The reason why Plato mistakenly believed that a rational world exists
It is because everything in nature has length, width, height, and shape.
Mathematicians can abstract them into geometric figures
But you abstract the watermelon into a circle
This circle actually exists only in your mind
Plato's mistake was that
mistakenly think that something abstracted in the mind
is derived from an extrasensory rational world
In fact they are just manifestations of nature
A circle simply cannot stand on its own
A circle is always the shape of something real
Likewise, all good values do not exist independently in the world of ideals
You must have seen courage, justice, goodness in someone
You don't see these values standing alone, floating in the air
so if you think
There is an absolute, one-size-fits-all concept of justice
then you are a platonist
but if you think
The justice we see is an example of it being done in the world
Every society is different
So justice must be set by the political community
then you are an aristotelian
Aristotle's theory also solved a problem that Plato couldn't
According to Plato there are two worlds
The natural world is not perfect, but the rational world is perfect
how do you explain
Mathematical knowledge can be applied to the imperfect nature
Aristotle's system has only one nature
won't have this problem
In fact, there are still debates between these two factions in the scientific community today.
Should science be based on mathematics or empirical evidence?
If you think truth is in nature, it can be observed
Then you are Aristotelian
More emphasis on scientific experiments
but if you think the truth should be in the math formula
Then you are a Platonist, and you pay more attention to theoretical deduction
for aristotle
The Ideas of Plato
are always attached to something
So their rank is relatively low and secondary
The really important existence must be self-existence
Exist without being dependent on anything else
Aristotle called these things "substances" (Ousia)
Entity is the constant change of various properties, behind the unchanging thing
Because it remains the same, it can be regarded as the essence of a thing
Early Aristotle believed that all organisms are substances
This makes his metaphysics a bit like a world of models
Entity is like the base of the model
many properties attached to the model
For example, a horse is an entity that exists independently
Color is the existence attached to the horse
No matter how the attributes of a horse change
What remains unchanged is that he is a horse
Aristotle discovered
This level of existence has a corresponding relationship with human language
An entity that exists independently and is the subject of a sentence
Properties that cannot exist independently are all descriptors of one sentence
So grammatically we can say "the horse is white"
But nobody says "white is a horse"
This sentence itself does not make sense
in other words
The logic of thought is also the logic of the world
Because the world is made up of entities and properties
So human beings are limited to think like this
The language invented by humans naturally reflects the structure of the world
This has a great impact on the history of Western philosophy
Western metaphysics has held for two thousand years that
Understand the category of language to understand the structure of the world
And this is what postmodernism in the 20th century wants to challenge
Do you think language can accurately reproduce reality
It's possible that this is just human fantasy
In the later years of Aristotle
He began to abandon the organism as the primary entity
because there's a big problem here
Think about what is the essence of your person?
Is it your body?
But your body cells are metabolizing every day
So the material of the body cannot define who you are
And your physical body continues after you die
You wouldn't say that that corpse was your essence, would you?
So matter would not be a human entity
Could it be the form?
For example Socrates was the wisest man in Athens
This form of wisdom may be the key to defining Socrates
But if you use form to define people, there will be a problem
If we say that Socrates is the embodiment of wisdom
If one day there is a person with the same wisdom
Then there are two Socrates in the world
or imagine you're in a relationship
certain characteristics of someone you fall in love with
But after a few years of dating those traits are gone
Is this person still the same person?
if not
You're just cheating on someone else
So Aristotle discovered
The definition of individuality cannot be grasped
When we want to define the essence of man
can only grasp the form of the human species
Think about it, everyone will die someday
No one who ever existed on earth is now
So they must not be the most fundamental existence in this world
People can exist because the previous generation gave birth to them
The previous generation is because of the previous generation
Push back infinitely
will find
Each generation of human beings cannot survive on its own
are not entities
The definition of an entity is something that can exist on its own
So what exactly is the human entity?
in the process of human reproduction
something that really passed on
In fact, it is the form of the human species.
All who are born depend on this form
Otherwise you can't be called a human
What is this species form?
Aristotle said it was the soul of man
He's not talking about the Christian concept of the soul.
Not going to heaven or hell after death
not individual soul
aristotle thought
The entire human species has only one soul
People all over the world actually share one soul
This human soul is in different flesh and blood
Grow out the life principle of you and me
This principle governs human beings
From baby to adult
developed a full human form
this sounds like a mystery
If understood in the language of modern science
This soul that gives the human species form
In fact, it is similar to the gene DNA code mentioned today.
Different permutations and combinations of DNA endow life with different forms
Humans share 99% of our genes with chimpanzees
The 1% difference makes the life principle of human beings and chimpanzees different
The logos (essence) of life development can also be translated into words in ancient Greek
And DNA is actually a speech
This language determines the reason for the growth of a species
The concept of the entity
There will be more wonderful arguments in the history of philosophy in the future
history of philosophy
You must understand Aristotle's concept of substance
in this episode
We introduce Aristotle's theory of four causes
Potential Theory, Metaphysics, Entity
Let's continue talking in the next episode
Aristotle's Ethics and Views of Human Nature
How else can someone live their best life?
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