English Language Change: Theories & Attitudes | A LEVEL REVISION | NARRATOR: BARBARA NJAU

Summary

This video delves into the theories and attitudes surrounding the evolution of the English language. It contrasts prescriptivism, which advocates for fixed language rules, with descriptivism, supporting language's natural fluidity. Historical perspectives, like those of Robert Lowth and Joseph Priestley, are examined, along with modern views from linguists like David Crystal and Suzanne Romaine, who address language change through various lenses, including social context, technology, and ideological shifts. The video also touches on the impact of language on thought and the role of linguists in documenting or shaping language evolution.

Takeaways

• 😀 The video discusses theories and attitudes towards language change, focusing on the debate between prescriptivism and descriptivism.
• 📚 Modern linguistics supports descriptivism, which acknowledges language as a fluid entity that changes over time, rather than something static.
• 🏛️ During the Renaissance, language correctness became a class marker, distinguishing the upper class from the masses.
• 📜 Robert Lowth was a prescriptivist who sought to prescribe English grammar based on Latin, while Joseph Priestley was a descriptivist, advocating for simplicity and observation.
• 📖 Samuel Johnson, known for his dictionary, initially had prescriptivist views but later embraced descriptivism, recognizing the dynamic nature of language.
• 🌐 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language can determine thought, which can be used to argue for the preservation of language to maintain consistent thought processes.
• 🌊 David Crystal views language as a tide, constantly changing and bringing in new words, suggesting that change is not detrimental but rather a natural progression.
• 🔄 Charles Jaco's random fluctuation theory posits that language change is driven by random events and errors, influenced by contextual factors.
• 🔧 Suzanne Romaine identifies two types of language change: internal, influenced by language factors, and external, driven by social context, technology, and ideologies.
• 🛠️ The functional theory by Marco Holliday suggests that language changes to meet the needs of its users, such as the emergence of new technology-related terms.
• 📈 Increased informalization in language use, as noted by Sharron Goodman, indicates a shift towards more casual language even in professional settings.

Q & A

What are the two major opposing philosophies in the history of linguistics?

The two major opposing philosophies in the history of linguistics are prescriptivism and descriptivism. Prescriptivism is the belief that there are rules that define how language should be used, while descriptivism is the view that language is defined by how people actually use it, and that language changes are inevitable and should be accepted.

How did the meaning of the word 'vulgar' change during the Renaissance period?

During the Renaissance period, the meaning of the word 'vulgar' changed from simply meaning 'of the people' to its modern sense of 'crude' or 'inferior', reflecting a class distinction between the refined upper class and the more vulgar masses.

What is the main difference between Robert Lowth and Joseph Priestley's approaches to language?

Robert Lowth was a strong prescriptivist who believed in defining rules for language usage based largely on his study of Latin. Joseph Priestley, on the other hand, was more of a descriptivist who emphasized the importance of observation and based his work on empirical evidence and the structure of English as it was actually used.

What was Samuel Johnson's initial goal for his Dictionary of the English Language?

Samuel Johnson's initial goal for his Dictionary of the English Language was to bring rule and order to the English language, fix its pronunciation, and preserve its purity. He aimed to reform the entire English language with his dictionary.

How did Samuel Johnson's views on language change over time?

Samuel Johnson's views evolved from being a prescriptivist to becoming more of a descriptivist. Initially, he aimed to reform the English language with his dictionary, but over time, he recognized that language is continuously subject to change and that the role of a lexicographer is to register the language rather than fix it.

What is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and how does it relate to the prescriptivist approach?

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as linguistic determinism, is the idea that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge and thought. This hypothesis can be used to support the prescriptivist approach by suggesting that preserving language as it is, is important because it impacts human thought and cognition.

What does David Crystal's tide metaphor explain about language change?

David Crystal's tide metaphor explains that language change is a natural and progressive process, like the constant ebb and flow of the tide. It suggests that changes in language are not necessarily for the worse but can be for the better, as long as they do not hinder communication.

What is the random fluctuation theory proposed by Charles Jaco?

The random fluctuation theory proposed by Charles Jaco suggests that language change is often the result of random events and errors. It posits that language evolves from ever-changing contextual factors, such as the influence of technology, social context, and ideological changes.

How does Suzanne Romaine categorize language change?

Suzanne Romaine categorizes language change into two types: internal changes, which are factors within the language itself such as the influence of dictionaries and the omission of certain sounds, and external changes, which are factors outside of the language such as social context, ideologies, technology, and inventions.

What is the functional theory of language change as proposed by Marco Holliday?

The functional theory of language change, proposed by Marco Holliday, suggests that language changes according to the needs of its users. It is an overarching theory that can explain various linguistic phenomena, including the emergence of new words to label new technologies and the obsolescence of words related to outdated technologies.

Outlines

00:00

🗣️ Language Change Debates: Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism

The video delves into the historical debate surrounding language change, focusing on prescriptivism and descriptivism. Prescriptivists believe in setting rules for language use, while descriptivists document and accept language as it evolves. The discussion highlights the shift from prescriptivism to descriptivism in modern linguistics, emphasizing the futility of preventing language change. Key figures like Robert Lowth and Joseph Priestley are mentioned, with Lowth advocating for Latin-based rules and Priestley promoting a more empirical, observation-based approach to grammar.

05:00

📚 The Evolution of Language Attitudes and Theories

This segment explores the attitudes towards language change during the Renaissance and the work of linguists like Samuel Johnson, who initially aimed to reform English through his dictionary but later recognized the dynamic nature of language. The video also introduces the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which posits that language shapes thought, supporting the prescriptivist view on language preservation. Theories like linguistic determinism and its implications for thought processes are discussed, along with reflections on the role of language in society and thought.

10:03

🌊 Metaphors of Language Change: Tide and Greengrocers

David Crystal's metaphor of language as a tide, constantly changing and bringing in new words, is examined. Crystal argues that language change is natural and often beneficial, as long as it doesn't hinder communication. The 'greengrocer's apostrophe' example illustrates that minor changes in language use don't necessarily affect the传达 of messages. The segment also covers other theories like random fluctuation theory by Charles Jaco, which attributes language change to random events and errors, and Suzanne Romaine's view on internal and external factors driving language evolution.

15:04

🌐 Language, Technology, and Societal Changes

The final segment discusses how technology and societal changes influence language, with examples like the shift from physical media to digital formats affecting terminology. The functional theory is introduced, suggesting that language changes to meet users' needs. The role of advertising and marketing in language evolution is highlighted, with terms like 'fun-sized' and 'man-made' reflecting societal preferences for certain language use. The video concludes with a call to subscribe for more educational content, emphasizing the importance of understanding language change in various contexts.

Keywords

💡Prescriptivism

Prescriptivism is the approach in linguistics that emphasizes the importance of adhering to a set of rules for language use, which are often based on historical or traditional standards. It is associated with the idea that language should remain static and not deviate from these established norms. In the video, prescriptivism is contrasted with descriptivism, highlighting the debate over whether language should be controlled or allowed to evolve naturally. The script mentions Robert Lowth, who was a strong proponent of prescriptivism, using Latin as a basis for English grammar rules.

💡Descriptivism

Descriptivism, on the other hand, is the perspective that linguists should objectively record and describe how language is actually used by speakers, rather than dictating how it should be used. This approach acknowledges the fluidity and evolution of language over time. The video emphasizes that modern linguistics leans towards descriptivism, recognizing the futility of trying to halt language change. An example from the script is Joseph Priestley, who focused on empirical observation of language use rather than Latin-based rules.

💡Linguistic Determinism

Linguistic determinism is the hypothesis, proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that the structure of a language determines the way its speakers perceive the world and think. This concept suggests that language shapes thought and cognition. The video discusses how this hypothesis can be used to support prescriptivism by arguing that preserving language is crucial for maintaining thought processes. However, it also presents the weak version of the hypothesis, which allows for language to influence but not entirely control thought.

💡Language Change

Language change refers to the evolution of language over time, including the development of new words, shifts in grammar, and changes in pronunciation. The video explores various theories and attitudes towards language change, from the prescriptivist view that change should be controlled to the descriptivist view that it is a natural and inevitable process. The script provides historical examples, such as the shift in the meaning of 'vulgar' during the Renaissance, to illustrate how language has changed.

💡Functional Theory

The functional theory, introduced by Michael Halliday, posits that language changes to meet the needs of its users. This theory suggests that language is a tool that adapts to serve the functions required by its speakers. In the video, this theory is used to explain how new words are created to label new technologies, and how older terms become obsolete as technologies change. It reflects the idea that language is dynamic and responsive to societal needs.

💡Informatization

Informatization is the process by which language forms that were once informal become more widely accepted in formal contexts. The video discusses how this trend is breaking down traditional barriers between formal and informal language use. An example from the script is the increasing use of conversational language in professional settings, which reflects a broader societal shift towards informality.

💡Political Correctness

Political correctness refers to the conscious effort to use language in a way that is non-offensive and respectful of various social and cultural groups. The video touches on how political correctness can lead to changes in language, such as the avoidance of certain terms considered derogatory. It also notes the controversial nature of political correctness, as it can be seen as both a positive effort to be inclusive and a negative form of language control.

💡Synthetic Personalization

Synthetic personalization is a term used to describe the use of language to create a false sense of personal relationship or intimacy that does not actually exist. The video cites this concept as an example of how language is manipulated in marketing and advertising to make consumers feel more connected to a brand. This strategy uses pronouns and other linguistic devices to simulate a personal touch.

💡Multimodality

Multimodality refers to the use of multiple modes of communication, such as text, images, and symbols, in a single message. The video discusses how modern texts are becoming increasingly multimodal, with the use of symbols like the letter 'X' taking on various meanings depending on the context. This trend reflects a shift towards a more visually oriented and less text-dependent form of communication.

💡Dysphemism

Dysphemism is the use of language that is intentionally harsh or offensive, often employed to express disapproval or disdain. The video contrasts dysphemism with euphemism, where more palatable terms are used to soften the impact of certain words or concepts. An example from the script is the use of 'casualties' instead of 'dead bodies' to describe the outcome of a conflict, which illustrates how language can be manipulated to manage perceptions.

Highlights

Introduction to theories and attitudes towards changes in the English language.

Debate between prescriptivism and descriptivism in linguistics.

Modern linguistics' preference for the descriptivist approach.

Prescriptivism's focus on rules defining proper language use.

Descriptivism's acceptance of language as fluid and changing.

Historic attitudes towards language change during the Renaissance period.

Robert Lowth's prescriptive approach to English grammar based on Latin.

Joseph Priestley's descriptive approach emphasizing observation over Latin principles.

Samuel Johnson's shift from prescriptivism to descriptivism in dictionary creation.

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf's hypothesis on linguistic determinism.

The strong and weak versions of the linguistic determinism hypothesis.

David Crystal's tide metaphor for language change.

Charles-Jacques's random fluctuation theory attributing language change to random events.

Suzanne Romaine's views on internal and external factors of language change.

Marco Holliday's functional theory on language changes according to user needs.

Norman Fairclough's observations on conversationalization and synthetic personalization in language.

Sharron Goodman's analysis of the evolving use of the letter 'X' and other symbols in language.

Donald MacKinnon's categorization of attitudes towards language use.

Justman's discussion on how language was manipulated by the Nazis for propaganda.

Transcripts

hello and welcome to a video summarizing

all you need to know about language

change and in this particular video

we'll be looking at theories and

attitudes towards the changes in the

English language throughout the

millennia make sure you do check out our

previous video where we looked in lots

of depth as to how English has really

evolved over the different millennia and

the changes it's gone through so now

looking at debates on language change so

as was mentioned previously in the other

video there are two major opposing

philosophies in the history of

linguistics which can essentially be

summed up as either prescriptivism or

descriptivism this really centers on the

question should linguist write how the

language ought to be spoken or written

or just record how in fact it's spoken

or written in other words there's a

massive debate as to whether language is

something that needs to remain static or

if language is something that's quite

fluid and it should be given the scope

to change and what's the role that

linguists must play within this now the

science of modern linguistics has come

firmly down on the descriptivists side

they realize that it's not only futile

but fruitless to try and prevent a

language from changing or to convert all

dialects to standard yet it was not

always so so now just to clarify what

the attitudes are and has been mentioned

earlier there's the prescriptivists

approach and the descriptivists approach

so prescriptivism essentially states

that there are rules that define how

language should be used and mistakes

result from when these rules are broken

you might hear this idea of prescriptive

in linguistics described as normative

which means that the rules are based on

normal usage and they determine the way

things such as spelling and grammar

ought to be on the other side is

descriptivism and from this perspective

a language is defined by what people do

with it

and descriptivists described how

language is used it systematically

recording and analyzing the endless the

changing ways people speak invite and

descriptivists accept the language

changes inevitable and they accept

to change now when we look at historic

attitudes to language change so during

the Renaissance period so this is the

16th and 17th centuries the correct

spelling of punctuation on grammar of

English words really became an important

class distinction differentiating

between those who belong to the refined

upper class from the more vulgar masses

significantly it was during this time

that the meaning of the word vulgar

itself changed from simply meaning of

the people to its modern sense of

crudeness and something that's really an

inferior person during the centuries

that followed a linguist would fall into

either two extremes so you have Robert

louse who was a strong prescriptivists

whilst Joseph Priestley was more of a

descriptivists lout wrote several books

on English grammar in order to teach

what is right and he decided what was

right was based largely on his study of

Latin for example it was loud who gave

us the rule that Sanders issues not end

with a preposition Priestley on the

other hand was an empirical scientist

and handles of the importance of

observation his Brooklyn grammar

published about the same time as louts

was based not on Latin principles but on

a collection of observations and the

structure of it and Priestley had his

personal grammatical biases however what

my scientists of the day he had a strong

attraction to the idea of simplicity and

applied this to English grammar while

keeping English grammar rules simple is

a noble objective he also applied it to

the vocabulary and strove to pair

English down to its English roots he

especially disliked what he called galas

isms which means words recently adopted

from French and precise philosophy and

language is summed up in this quote I

think it not only suitable to the genius

of free nation but in itself ill

calculated to reform and fix a language

another linguist of the 18th century is

called Samuel Johnson and of course

you'll know him from our previous video

as he really came up with a very

comprehensive dictionary so he started

off interestingly as a prescriptivists

however he then converted later want to

become more of a descriptive

and of course as is mentioned his most

famous for 1755 a Dictionary of the

English language and in his proposal for

the dictionary is patron Lord

Chesterfield written in 1747 Johnson

describes his goal to bring rule and

order to the English language and he

compares himself to Caesar about to

invade Britain and expresses the hope

that though I should not complete the

conquest I shall at least discovered the

cost and the coasts civilized parts of

the inhabitants and make it easy some

other adventurer to proceed father to

reduce them wholly to subjection and

settle them under laws he continues

explain this milord is my idea of an

English dictionary a dictionary by which

the pronunciation of our language may be

fixed and its attainment facilitated by

which its purity may be preserved it's

used ascertained and its duration for

the lengthened Johnson was really

proposing to single-handedly reform the

entire English language with his

dictionary which he estimated will take

him three years to complete his

dictionary was published in 1755 which

was actually eight years after the

proposal and during this time his goals

had really shifted substantially so the

preface of the dictionary Johnson uses

much different analogies to describe his

work he come to recognize that language

is continuously subject to change and

the goal of the lexicon in lexicographer

was to register the language rather than

fix it and reforming a language would be

like trying to rope in a river he

compared the immensity of this task to

story from Greek mythology to pursue

perfection Wars like the first

inhabitants of Arcadia to chase the Sun

which when they reached the hill where

he seemed to rest will still be held at

some distance for them by the way if you

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the similar content

now going into other theorists and their

attitudes towards the evolution of

English in which areas that they sit in

or rather which camps that they set in

so we've got Edwards affair and Benjamin

Whorf they came up with a circuit severe

Wolfe hypothesis so this theory really

sums up the concept of linguistic

determinism it's the idea that language

and its structures limit and determine

human knowledge or thought as well as

thought processes such as categorization

memory and perception this theory or

rather this hypothesis implies that

people of different languages have

different thoughts more importantly it

can be used to support the

prescriptivists approach that preserving

language as it remains is important as

it impacts human knowledge and thought

and so severe and warf each studied

Native American languages but linguistic

determinism has actually been applied to

many languages including of course

English and the main principle of this

hypothesis is that language perceived

thought and then controls it hence of

course if language really comes before

our thoughts and controls it then we

have a really strong interest in

ensuring that it's really controlled and

really preserved right otherwise it's

going to impede on our thoughts and the

strong version of this hypothesis human

thought is only possible through

language this means that we can only

think things that we have language to

articulate the strong version can be

criticized being too rigid as it seems

to make any language change impossible

you wouldn't be able to coin new words

and forms of language that are emerging

all the time however there is a weak

version of this hypothesis which is much

more usable and it suggests that

language can only influence thought it

does not have complete control over it

furthermore other linguists have looked

at the relationship between language and

thought from a reflection is perspective

they see the connection being the other

way round language is shaped to our

thoughts and simply a reflection of the

way that we are and how we think this

reflection is argument can also be

criticized for dismissing the value of

trying to shape or change language for

example preventing the use of racist

language would be deemed irrelevant on

the basis that racism reflects the way

people think and it will re-emerge in

different forms no matter how you try

and control that language junaid concern

is another theorist that weighs in on

the prescriptivists / descriptivists

debate and she categorized different

prescriptivists attitudes towards

language these views will not her own

however because she herself was a

descriptivists however it's important to

be clear on the three categories that

she came up with when she described the

prescriptivists approach so the first

category is what she called the damped

spoon syndrome and the this is the view

that language use has become lazy like

putting a damped spoon back into the

sugar the criticism here is that

language is arguably economical rather

than lazy and also sometimes sounds that

are considered lazy actually require

lots of energy how other category is a

crumbling castle view this is the belief

that language is like a beautiful

stately home that should be preserved

languages wants perfect but no longer is

however the criticism to this view is

that languages in the constant state of

flux so that there has never been a

period of perfect English usage the

third category is the infections disease

assumption that language uses contagious

and hence bad habits spread to other

users

how are the criticism to this approach

is that people adopt new language habits

because they like them was not done

against their will

David crystal is another theorist that

you need to be aware of of course

he weighs in on this debate quite

heavily and he is perhaps the best-known

descriptivists he created his own tied

metaphor to explain language change in

this he suggests that language is like a

tide constantly changing it ebbs and

flows bringing in new words and taking

out others in a natural and progressive

way and using this metaphor Cristal

claims that changes are just not for the

worse but actually for the better that

just changes he says if we take language

in its bare form as a form of

communication then as long as the change

does not hinder communication then

surely change is good

Cristal explains this idea through also

another example of the greengrocers ' so

if a greengrocer was to miss use an

apostrophe on his scientist painting

what he has in his shop it would have no

effect on the legibility of connotations

of the sign with a sells potatoes or

potatoes with an apostrophe s the place

of the apostrophe really doesn't affect

the message so why should it matter the

message are still being conveyed

therefore the text meets its purpose

Charles Jaco is another theorists you

should be aware of

so in 1958 he formed the random

fluctuation theory which centers in the

belief that random events and errors

have led to language change and he

believes that language and results from

ever-changing contextual factors for

example the word book has come to be

synonymous with the word call due to the

fact that typing poor inter predictive

text autographs into her book and the

word peas refer to a single pea in

middle english but people mistakenly

thought it referred to more than one

they therefore use the word pea to refer

to the singular form and entered into

the lexicon

Suzanne romaine is another Faris who

weighs in on this debate and she

believed that language change may occur

in two ways so firstly internal changes

so the factors would then the language

for example the influence of dictionary

is promoting new words and meanings the

omission of certain sounds due to the

economic principle of language the other

way that language change occurs

according to her is external so external

changes changing social context

ideologies technology and inventions for

example political correctness has come

about due to external ideological

changes Marco Holliday is another

theorists who weighs in on this and he

came up with the functional theory that

language changes according to the needs

of its users it's an overarching theory

and many other theorists provide in this

provided in this document make take this

general concept and apply it and more

specifically functional theory can also

be used to explain or charisms as many

of them occur because technology has

moved on words such as cassettes and LPS

are becoming archaic because the

technology or concepts they refer to are

archaic we no longer use coset cassettes

or even CDs the theory also supports new

words arise mp3 blu-ray and USB which

have come about because there is a need

to label this new technology and

actually some degree we can even argue

that things like mp3 and blu-ray are

going to soon become quite obsolete as

well as new inventions technology and

discoveries that theory can also explain

the use of slang

Norman Fairclough is another theorist

and he noticed that advertisements to

marketing and marketing texts are

increasingly attempted to mimic speech

and he calls this conversational ization

which is an hour term than in

formalization at the same time he notes

that synthetic personalization has

become a more commonplace this is the

attempt to use language to create a

personal relationship between a text

producer and receiver that doesn't

really exist for example through

pronouns like Queen Sharron Goodman is

another theorist and she notes that we

are living in a time of increased in

formalization the process whereby

language forms that were traditionally

reserved for close personal

relationships are now used in wider

social context and she said professional

encounters are increasingly likely to

contain informal forms of English what

Norman Fairclough termed conversation

alized and some would argue that

increased in formalization in a range of

contexts breaks down barriers between

them and us are those who argue that

barriers instead do remain but are more

likely to be manipulated if they appear

not to be through this language Goodman

for example gives the example of the

letter X which has really actually

evolved a lot and it appears

infrequently in written words as a

supercharged typographic icon so the

signifier X is a graphic symbol and it's

used to create a range of meaning so for

example X can refer to either a kiss

incorrect an unnamed person and named

for one o'clock right mark for a vote a

draw on the football Paul's sign for

algebra a cancellation written across

other words a site on a map 10 in Roman

numerals X also can be x in mathematics

it can represent deleted letters into

the boo language it replaces a prefix in

contemporary English for example

expressing a company name

and she also looks at other graphics and

symbols such as P which we sometimes see

on big signs which essentially refers to

parking a to e which can refer to grades

F and female and these are all really

culturally specific for farik symbols so

texts no longer rely on words alone as

they are becoming increasingly

multimodal

as Goodwin states they use devices for

more than one semiotic mode of

communication simultaneously and she

notes that finding a term to describe

visual elements of a text as problematic

also the use of lowercase letters were

traditionally uppercase had been used

actually became popularized in the 1960s

and it's now being revived again so for

example BP which effects the company the

oil company itself has actually become

lowercase BP recently in order to

influence way that they are being

perceived as more savvy as a company and

the one to appear more in line with

advancing technology and business Donald

MacKinnon is another theorist and he

categorizes the attitudes that many

people have to language use so firstly

he categorizes it as incorrect or

correct this is one attitude or rather

to appeasing attitude

secondly personal ugly thirdly socially

acceptable socially unacceptable

fourthly morally acceptable or morally

unacceptable

fifthly appropriate in context or

inappropriate in context or 6ly useful

or useless so change generally takes

place according to him over time but

political correctness involves a

conscious process and mckennon's fifth

category which is appropriate in context

or inappropriate in context really is

interesting because it ties into moral

acceptability and it's rarely clear-cut

however context is everything so whilst

thought of as a positive thing so

political correctness itself because the

word correct in its title it's largely

associated with the negative and there's

no neutral way of seeing this term

like Bollinger's and other ferrous to be

aware of and he highlighted the

increasing use of new form isms in

advertising so words like fun-sized

which means small or man-made which

means fake or crafted which means

manufactured and also in the media where

dysphemism are avoided so for example

instead of the strong as terms people

and especially advertising goes for the

softer terms so for example casualties

which refers to dead bodies tragedy

which refers to crime public relations

which refers to propaganda justman is

another theorists and adjustment notes

the language of the nazis which made it

easier for the rest of the world to

ignore events of course again this is

tight language change but also how

language is manipulated to make things

easier for others so for instance the

nazis use language in a really

interesting way they refer to the final

solution to refer to the extinction of

german jews evacuation referring to

removal of enemies to camps special

treatment which refers to gas or death

and protective custody which really

means imprisonment so of course this

really shows just how language change is

also inspired by people attempting to

manipulate it and to change it from the

broader perspective so that's it if you

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