History of the alphabet | Journey into information theory | Computer Science | Khan Academy

Summary

This script explores the evolution of writing systems from ancient hieroglyphics and cuneiform to the Phoenician alphabet. It highlights the transition from complex symbols to simplified phonetic scripts, driven by the need for efficient communication across spaces. The development of mediums like papyrus facilitated this shift, leading to the emergence of alphabets that could adapt to various languages, laying the foundation for global literacy.

Takeaways

• 📜 Information is a message that can be stored or transmitted using various mediums, with painting representing a continuous pattern of expression.
• 🔠 The development of writing systems involved dividing the world into a finite number of atomic units represented by symbols, forming messages through specific patterns.
• 🏛 Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics were a priestly form of communication used for governmental, fiscal, magical, and religious purposes, mainly by scribes and unintelligible to common people.
• 📘 Hieroglyphics were divided into word signs representing single concepts and sound signs representing chunks of sound, with a total of over 1,500 symbols in use.
• 🌾 The emergence of Papyrus as a writing medium allowed for more portable and less durable inscriptions, facilitating the spread of writing to more people for various purposes.
• 📝 The evolution of symbols on Papyrus led to the development of the Hieratic script, a cursive script with simplified pictures and around 700 common symbols.
• 📜 The shift from stone to lighter mediums like Papyrus coincided with the secularization of writing, leading to the creation of the Demotic script with a further reduction in symbols.
• 📚 Cuneiform, the writing system of Mesopotamia, was initially used for fiscal purposes and evolved to include various types of documents, with over 2,000 symbols reduced to around 600 by the Akkadians.
• 🔠 The Phoenician Alphabet, dating to around 1,000 BC, was based on one sign representing one consonant, with 22 symbols total, and was adaptable to various languages.
• 🌐 The Phoenician Alphabet laid the foundation for the Greek and Roman alphabets, demonstrating the power of an alphabet in transmitting and storing information across different languages and cultures.
• 🚀 The quest for faster and more efficient ways of transporting information has always driven the evolution of writing systems and mediums, leading to modern engineering challenges in information transmission.

Q & A

What is the informal definition of information mentioned in the script?

Information is defined as some message, stored or transmitted, using some medium.

How does painting represent a message in comparison to written language?

Painting represents a message using a continuous pattern with a seemingly endless number of possible forms, allowing for free self-expression, unlike written language which uses a finite number of atomic units or symbols.

What were the two main purposes of ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics?

Hieroglyphics were used for governmental, fiscal, magical, and religious purposes and were a form of communication reserved for scribes.

How many different symbols were in common use in ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics?

Over 1,500 different symbols were in common use in ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics.

What was the significance of the shift from rock to papyrus as a medium for writing in ancient Egypt?

The shift to papyrus allowed for messages to be sent across greater spaces more easily, as it was lightweight and portable, and it coincided with the spread of writing to more people for various purposes.

What is Hieratic script and how did it evolve?

Hieratic script is a cursive form of writing that evolved to suit more rapid writing on papyrus. It simplified the pictures from Hieroglyphics and reduced the number of common symbols to around 700.

What writing system emerged around 650 BC in Egypt to facilitate ease of rapid writing?

Demotic script emerged around 650 BC in Egypt to facilitate ease of rapid writing and used primarily phonetic symbols or sound signs.

What was the original purpose of Cuneiform in Mesopotamia?

Cuneiform was originally used for fiscal purposes, as a method of tracking debt and surplus commodities.

How did the Phoenician Alphabet revolutionize writing?

The Phoenician Alphabet revolutionized writing by using one sign to represent one consonant, simplifying the system to only 22 symbols, and being adaptable to various languages, not just Semitic.

What is the significance of the Sinai inscriptions found around 1700 BC?

The Sinai inscriptions are significant because they represent an early form of alphabetic writing, using only consonant sounds with no word signs, and laid the groundwork for the development of later alphabets.

How did the evolution of writing systems reflect changes in society and technology?

The evolution of writing systems, such as from Hieroglyphics to Hieratic and Demotic in Egypt, and from complex symbols to phonetic alphabets, reflects changes in society towards greater literacy and the need for more efficient communication methods, as well as technological advancements in writing mediums like papyrus.

Outlines

00:00

📜 Evolution of Writing Systems: From Hieroglyphics to Alphabets

This paragraph explores the concept of information and its representation through writing systems, starting from ancient Egypt's Hieroglyphics used by scribes for governmental and religious purposes. It discusses the evolution of symbols into a system of word signs and sound signs, with a significant reduction in the number of symbols as writing systems adapted to new mediums like Papyrus. The paragraph also covers the emergence of cursive scripts like Hieratic and the further simplification with the Demotic script, highlighting the shift towards phonetic symbols and the spread of writing to the masses.

05:02

🌐 The Spread of Writing: Cuneiform to the Phoenician Alphabet

The second paragraph delves into the history of Cuneiform in Mesopotamia, initially used for fiscal purposes and later adapted for various needs including recipes and legal documents. It outlines the reduction of symbols as the system evolved and was adapted by different languages, such as Akkadian. The paragraph culminates in the discussion of the Phoenician Alphabet, which simplified the representation of consonants and had a profound impact on the development of writing systems across different cultures, including the Greek and Roman alphabets. The summary emphasizes the universality of the alphabet as a method for information transmission and the continuous search for more efficient ways to convey information over greater distances.

Keywords

💡Information

Information in the context of this video refers to the content or knowledge that is conveyed or represented, either through a message or a medium. It is central to the theme of the video as it explores how information has been stored and transmitted throughout history. The script mentions 'information' in the context of painting and writing systems, highlighting how different mediums have been used to express and convey information.

💡Writing Systems

Writing systems are the methods and techniques used to represent language in a tangible form, such as symbols or characters. The video discusses the evolution of writing systems from ancient Egypt's Hieroglyphics to the Phoenician Alphabet, emphasizing their role in the development of human communication and information storage.

💡Hieroglyphics

Hieroglyphics is an ancient Egyptian writing system that used pictorial symbols to represent words or concepts. The script describes how Hieroglyphics were a priestly form of communication, primarily used for governmental, fiscal, magical, and religious purposes, and were unintelligible to the common people. The video also explains the categorization of Hieroglyphic symbols into word signs and sound signs.

💡Papyrus

Papyrus was an early form of paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, commonly used in ancient Egypt. The script details the process of creating papyrus and how it became a new medium for writing, allowing for greater mobility of messages and contributing to the evolution of writing systems like Hieratic and Demotic.

💡Cursive Script

A cursive script, such as Hieratic mentioned in the script, is a style of handwriting that is characterized by the connection of characters, allowing for faster writing. The video illustrates how the shift to writing on papyrus led to the development of cursive scripts that simplified the symbols to match the swiftness of writing.

💡Demotic

Demotic is a script that evolved in ancient Egypt around 650 BC, designed for ease of rapid writing. The script explains that Demotic had a reduced number of symbols compared to Hieroglyphics and Hieratic, with a shift towards phonetic symbols, making it more accessible for wider use.

💡Cuneiform

Cuneiform is an ancient writing system used in Mesopotamia, characterized by wedge-shaped marks on clay tablets. The video describes its origin for fiscal purposes, like tracking debt and commodities, and how it evolved to serve various other needs, such as recipes and legal documents.

💡Phoenician Alphabet

The Phoenician Alphabet is a writing system that emerged around 1000 BC and was based on the principle of one sign representing one consonant. The script highlights its significance as a precursor to the Greek and Roman alphabets, showing how it facilitated the spread of literacy and the transmission of information across different cultures and languages.

💡Sound Signs

Sound signs, as discussed in the script, are symbols in a writing system that represent chunks of sound or phonetic elements. The video explains how the use of sound signs increased in evolved forms of writing systems like Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform, contributing to the simplification and standardization of writing.

💡Medium

In the context of the video, a medium refers to the physical substance or form used to store and transmit information, such as rock, papyrus, or clay tablets. The script discusses the shift from durable mediums like rock to more portable ones like papyrus, which allowed for the expansion of writing and the evolution of writing systems.

💡Simplification

Simplification in the video refers to the process of reducing the complexity of writing systems by minimizing the number of symbols and focusing on phonetic elements. The script illustrates how simplification made writing more accessible and efficient, enabling the spread of literacy and the development of new writing systems like the Phoenician Alphabet.

Highlights

Information is defined as a message stored or transmitted using a medium.

Painting represents messages through continuous patterns with endless forms.

Writing systems divide the world into finite atomic units expressed by symbols.

Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics were used for governmental, fiscal, magical, and religious purposes.

Hieroglyphic writing was unintelligible to common people and practiced by select scribes.

Hieroglyphic symbols are categorized into word signs representing concepts and sound signs representing chunks of sound.

There were over 1,500 different symbols in common use in Hieroglyphics, with a smaller portion being sound signs.

The primary medium for storing Hieroglyphics was rock, ideal for durable inscriptions.

The emergence of Papyrus as a medium allowed for more portable and lightweight messages.

The shift to Papyrus coincided with the spread of writing to more people for various purposes.

Symbols evolved into a cursive script called Hieratic to suit rapid writing on Papyrus.

The number of common symbols in Hieratic was reduced to around 700.

The new writing system Demotic emerged around 650 BC for ease of rapid writing.

Demotic script reduced the total number of symbols to roughly 10 percent of the previous total.

The Phoenician Alphabet, dating to around 1000 BC, represented one sign for one consonant, with 22 symbols total.

The Phoenician Alphabet's symbols were often borrowed from Hieroglyphic pictures, with the letter's name starting with the letter's sound.

The Alphabet's adaptability allowed it to be fitted to diverse languages across Europe, India, and Southeast Asia.

The Alphabet is a powerful method for transmitting and storing information, regardless of symbol choice or language.

Transcripts

(piano music)

Brit: Informally, we can think of information

as some message, stored or transmitted, using some medium.

When you paint you are representing your

message using a continuous pattern with a

seemingly endless number of possible forms.

You are free to express yourself.

When humans began developing writing systems,

we naturally had to divide our world

into a finite number of atomic units

which we express using symbols.

Any written language can be thought of in this way.

Messages are formed by arranging symbols

in specific patterns.

Let's return to 3,000 BC

and explore two ancient writing systems.

First, in ancient Egypt, we had Hieroglyphics,

a priestly form of communication reserved for

governmental, fiscal, magical,

and religious purposes.

It was practiced by a select few writers

known as scribes, and writing was generally

unintelligible to the common people.

The symbols themselves broadly fall

into two categories, word signs, which are symbols

that represent a single meaningful concept...

Woman showing mouth: Back.

Apple.

Brit: ...and sound signs.

These symbols represent chunks of sound.

Dark haired woman: Be.

Boy in red shirt: Ze.

Girl in black shirt: Ton.

Boy in green shirt: Ca.

Brit: Now, the total number of different symbols

in common use was over 1,500,

and if you divide all of these symbols into

word signs versus sound signs,

we find a much smaller portion of sound signs.

There were around 140 sound signs, and of these,

only 33 represented distinct consonants,

a tiny fraction of all of the symbols in use.

At the time, the medium used to store the symbols

was primarily rock, and this was ideal for

durable inscriptions, allowing messages

to travel into the future.

Mobility was not a main concern when

communicating messages in this way.

However, a new physical medium for storing symbols

was emerging at the time.

Along the Nile, silt deposits left from flooding

made the surrounding land extremely fertile,

and one of the many crops they grew

was Papyrus.

It could be sliced into strips,

and these strips were then soaked,

(bell tones)

Brit: and weaved together and finally pressed,

allowing the natural sugars to act as glue.

(bell tones)

Brit: After several days, it dried and formed

an almost weightless tablet.

(bell tones)

Brit: This medium was ideal for sending messages

across greater spaces, rather than the more

durable inscriptions focused on time.

This shift toward cheap portable mediums

for storing symbols coincided with the spread

of writing into the hands of more people

for new purposes.

Gradually, as people began to write more

on Papyrus, the symbols evolved

to suit more rapid writing.

This lead to a cursive script, known as Hieratic.

For example, here is the world's oldest

surviving surgical document.

It's written in Hieratic script,

dated to around 1600 BC.

These symbols were based on Hieroglyphics,

however the pictures were simplified

to match the swiftness of writing in ancient shorthand.

Also, the number of common symbols in use

began to shrink down to around 700.

By escaping from the heavy medium of stone,

thought gained lightness.

A marked increase in writing by hand was

accompanied by the secularization

of writing, thought, and activity.

This lead to a new writing system called Demotic

around 650 BC, which was devised specifically to

facilitate the ease of rapid writing.

For example, this text is known as

a marriage contract, and is one of the earliest

known examples of Demotic script.

It's interesting to notice that there was a

dramatic reduction again in the total number

of symbols with this new system,

roughly 10 percent of the total number of

symbols used before.

This was due to a shift towards the use of

phonetic symbols, or sound signs...

Dark haired woman: Be.

Boy in red shirt: Ze.

Girl in black shirt: Ton.

Boy in green shirt: Ca.

Brit: over word symbols, or meaning signs.

And the new simplicity meant that children

could be taught to write at a young age.

We see this same pattern in other cultures.

Let's return back to 3,000 BC and visit Mesopotamia,

where Cuneiform was the writing system

originally used for fiscal purposes, as it was a

powerful method of tracking debt

and surplus commodities

before the invention of coins.

For example, here is a document recording

someone's stock of animal hides, and this type of

writing evolved to suit other needs.

For example, this tablet contains a recipe for

bread and beer, and here's another tablet

which contains a legal document.

Originally, the writing system was used

by the Sumerians, and there were over

2,000 different symbols in use,

which could also be divided into

word signs and sound signs.

Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian

as the spoken language, and here is

the earliest known dictionary from 2,300 BC.

It contains word lists in Sumerian and Akkadian,

and this was discovered in modern Syria.

When it was adapted by the Akkadians

and fitted to their language, they reduced the

number of symbols to around 600,

and they did this again by moving towards

sound signs.

Again, we see both Hieroglyphics and Cuneiform

using several hundred sound symbols in their

more evolved forms, and as writing systems escaped

their formal usage and spread to

more and more people, the soil was ripe for the

invention of a brand new writing system

for the people.

One of the great discoveries in the history of writing

is dated to around 1700 BC.

The Sinai inscriptions were found in the

Sinai peninsula, and they were about 20 feet apart.

This was important because each picture denotes

a consonant sound, and no word signs are used.

When sounded out correctly, the letters

would produce words in ancient Semitic.

Although not fully deciphered, this message

appears to be of the form,

"name, rank and prayer".

The two words deciphered are "Chief" and "God".

This innocent example was part of a

writing revolution, creating meaning by merging

sound signs only.

Woman showing mouth: A.

Ack.

Back.

Ba.

Pl.

Apple.

Brit: By 1,000 BC, we arrive at

the Phoenician Alphabet, which emerges along

the Mediterranean used by the Phoenicians

who are a maritime trading culture.

The Phoenician writing system was based on

the principle that one sign represents

one consonant, and it was used to write a

northern Semitic language,

containing only 22 symbols total.

The symbols chosen to represent these sounds

were often borrowed from Hieroglyphic pictures,

so that the letter's name began with

the letter's sound.

For example, mem, which stood for water,

became what we know of as the letter M.

Aleph, which stood for ox, became what we know of

as the letter A, but the secret power of this alphabet,

unknown to it's inventors, was that it did not need

Semitic speech in order to work.

Dark haired woman: D.

Boy in green shirt: Ah, eh, i, ou, oo.

Brit: With modest adjustments, these miraculous

letters would be fitted to diverse tongues of

Europe, India, and southeast Asia,

Boy in red shirt: Za.

Brit: carrying literacy around the globe.

Boy in red shirt: Ma.

Da.

Brit: This was the source of the Greek

and later Roman alphabet forms we know today.

The idea of an alphabet is a powerful method

for transmitting and storing information.

Realize, it doesn't really matter what the symbols are

or how you choose them, or even what language

it's in, information is just a selection

from a collection of possible symbols.

And, over time, we have always looked for faster,

more efficient ways of transporting information

across greater and greater spaces,

and when we try doing this using new mediums,

which travel faster than any human or animal,

an engineering problem presents itself.

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