Fundamentals of Qualitative Research Methods: Focus Groups (Module 4)

Summary

This Yale School of Public Health module, led by Lesli Curry, delves into focus groups as a qualitative research method. It underscores the importance of group dynamics for generating narrative data, revealing social norms, and exploring sensitive topics. The module covers optimal group composition, discussion guide structuring, and moderator techniques. It also stresses analyzing group interactions, not just individual responses, to gain comprehensive insights.

Takeaways

• 😀 A focus group is a qualitative research method where a group of individuals with certain characteristics generate narrative data through a focused discussion.
• 👥 Group dynamics in focus groups are essential as they can widen the range of responses, activate forgotten details, and release inhibitions among participants.
• 🗣️ Focus groups are useful for exploring social and cultural norms, revealing how people talk about an issue, and discussing sensitive topics.
• 👥 The ideal group size for a focus group is 5 to 10 participants to ensure dynamic interaction and equal opportunity for each member to contribute.
• 📊 It's recommended to have three to five focus groups per strata to capture diverse perspectives within a specific demographic or category.
• ⚖️ Attention to group composition is critical to avoid power differentials and ensure a balance between homogeneity and heterogeneity.
• 🎨 Data collection in focus groups should stimulate conversation, with the goal of generating a ripple effect from a single point of discussion.
• ❓ A well-structured discussion guide with no more than 8 to 12 questions is key to a successful focus group, with a mix of quick and deeper discussion questions.
• 🗣️ Moderators play a crucial role in facilitating focus groups, requiring strong interviewing skills, keen observational skills, and the ability to guide the discussion without bias.
• 🔍 Analysis of focus group data should consider the group as the unit of analysis, focusing on group interactions and consensus rather than individual responses.
• 👂 Non-verbal cues are important in focus groups, with a second person often present to observe and note these dynamics.

Q & A

What is the primary goal of the module series on qualitative research methods?

The primary goal is to enhance the capacity to conceptualize, design, and conduct qualitative research in the Health Sciences.

What is the main focus of this particular module?

This module focuses on a major qualitative study design known as focus groups.

What is a focus group and why are group dynamics essential?

A focus group is a group of people with certain characteristics who generate narrative data in a focused discussion. Group dynamics are essential because they can widen the range of responses, activate forgotten details, and release inhibitions, making people feel comfortable in describing their experiences.

How can focus groups be useful in the Health Sciences?

Focus groups can be useful for characterizing social and cultural norms around health areas, health behaviors, or types of health care delivery. They can also reveal how people talk about an issue and are useful for exploring potentially sensitive topics.

What is the recommended group size for focus groups?

The recommended group size for focus groups is five to ten participants.

Why is it important to have three to five groups per strata in focus group studies?

Having three to five groups per strata ensures a sufficient sample size to capture a range of perspectives within each subgroup and helps to avoid bias or skewed results.

What considerations should be taken into account when assembling focus groups?

When assembling focus groups, considerations include avoiding power differentials, considering homogeneity and heterogeneity, deciding between strangers or acquaintances, and determining the balance between experts and novices.

What is the purpose of a discussion guide in focus group studies?

A discussion guide in focus group studies is used to structure the conversation, ensuring that key topics are covered while allowing for natural dialogue and group interaction.

Why is it important for questions in a discussion guide to be open-ended?

Open-ended questions are important because they allow participants to generate and shape the direction of the discussion without leading them in any particular direction.

What are some moderator skills required for conducting effective focus groups?

Moderator skills required include strong interviewing techniques, keen observational skills, the ability to control and guide the discussion, suppressing personal views, and respecting participants.

How should the analysis of focus group data differ from the analysis of individual interviews?

The analysis of focus group data should consider the group as the unit of analysis rather than individuals. It should focus on themes and consensus within the group and pay attention to group dynamics.

Outlines

00:00

👥 Introduction to Focus Groups in Qualitative Research

The paragraph introduces the concept of focus groups within the context of qualitative research methods. Lesli Curry from Yale School of Public Health explains that focus groups involve a group of individuals with shared characteristics engaging in a discussion. The interaction within the group is crucial as it can broaden the range of responses, activate forgotten details, and release inhibitions. Focus groups are beneficial for exploring social and cultural norms, health behaviors, and healthcare delivery. They allow researchers to understand how people discuss issues and can be used to delve into sensitive topics. The module discusses the design of focus group studies, including group size and stratification, with recommendations for 5 to 10 participants per group and at least three groups per stratum.

05:02

🔍 Designing Focus Group Studies

This section delves into the specifics of designing focus group studies. It emphasizes the importance of group composition, avoiding power differentials, and considering homogeneity and heterogeneity. The composition of groups should allow for a diversity of opinions while maintaining enough common ground for meaningful discussion. The paragraph also touches on the dynamics of having strangers versus acquaintances in a group and the balance between experts and novices. The discussion guide for focus groups is highlighted, suggesting no more than 8 to 12 questions, with a clear sequence from opening to key questions. The guide should use conversational, clear, and open-ended questions, and the 'think-back' technique is recommended to ground participants in their experiences.

10:03

🗣️ Conducting Focus Groups

The paragraph discusses the practical aspects of conducting focus groups, including considerations for participant time limits, language abilities, and cultural sensitivities. It stresses the importance of the researcher's communication skills, especially when dealing with populations unfamiliar with research environments. The moderator's role is explored, highlighting the need for strong interviewing techniques, keen observational skills, and the ability to guide the discussion without dominating it. The moderator must suppress personal views and respect participants, creating a safe space for open dialogue. An excerpt from a focus group is provided to illustrate the moderator's techniques in action.

15:06

📊 Analysis of Focus Group Data

This section addresses the analysis of focus group data, cautioning against treating it as individual interviews. The group, rather than individuals, is the unit of analysis, and the analysis should focus on group interactions and consensus. The paragraph advises on noting whether responses are led by the moderator or emerge spontaneously from group discussions. It also warns against equating the volume of discussion with the importance of an issue. Tips for effective focus groups include establishing rapport among group members, creating a safe space, redirecting the group when necessary, and managing group dynamics to prevent bias and ensure a balanced conversation.

20:07

👁️‍🗨️ Managing Group Dynamics and Non-Verbal Cues

The final paragraph emphasizes the importance of managing group dynamics and paying attention to non-verbal cues in focus groups. The moderator's role is to ensure that dominant individuals do not constrain the conversation and that all participants have an opportunity to contribute. The presence of a second person in the room to observe non-verbal cues is noted as valuable for interpreting group findings. The paragraph concludes by thanking the audience for their attention, indicating the end of the discussion on focus groups.

Keywords

💡Focus Group

A focus group is a research technique where a group of individuals participate in a guided discussion, led by a moderator. It is designed to obtain perceptions on a defined topic in a social context. In the script, focus groups are highlighted as a major qualitative study design in health sciences, where group interaction and dynamics are essential for generating narrative data.

💡Narrative Data

Narrative data refers to the personal stories, experiences, and perspectives shared by individuals in a qualitative research setting. The script mentions that focus groups generate narrative data through focused discussions, which allows for a deeper understanding of participants' views and experiences.

💡Group Dynamics

Group dynamics refer to the way members of a group interact with each other. The script emphasizes the importance of group dynamics in focus groups, as they can activate forgotten details, widen the range of responses, and release inhibitions among participants, leading to richer data.

💡Interaction

Interaction in the context of focus groups refers to the communication and dialogue between participants. The script describes how interaction can lead to a variety of outcomes, such as sharing and comparing experiences, which is crucial for understanding social and cultural norms around health-related topics.

💡Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves exploring and understanding social phenomena in terms of the meanings people attribute to them. The script positions focus groups as a method within qualitative research, aiming to enhance the capacity to conceptualize, design, and conduct such studies in health sciences.

💡Health Sciences

Health sciences is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses areas like public health, medicine, and nursing. The script discusses how focus groups can be particularly useful for exploring topics within health sciences, such as social and cultural norms around health behaviors.

💡Stratification

Stratification in research refers to the process of dividing a larger group into subgroups based on specific characteristics. The script mentions stratification as a technique for ensuring that focus groups are composed of participants who share similar backgrounds or experiences, which can affect the group dynamics and the quality of data collected.

💡Discussion Guide

A discussion guide is a tool used by a moderator to facilitate a focus group discussion. The script outlines the importance of structuring discussion guides with a clear sequence of questions, labeling them by the time they should take, and ensuring they are conversational and open-ended.

💡Moderation

Moderation refers to the role of the person leading a focus group discussion. The script describes key moderator skills, such as maintaining a neutral stance, asking open-ended questions, and controlling the flow of conversation without stifling it.

💡Data Analysis

Data analysis in the context of focus groups involves interpreting the narrative data collected during discussions. The script stresses that the group, rather than individuals, is the unit of analysis, and that analysis should consider the group interaction and consensus on particular topics.

💡Rapport

Rapport refers to the positive relationship established between the researcher and the participants, and among the participants themselves. The script mentions creating rapport as a key step in focus group research, which helps to make participants feel comfortable and encourages open and honest discussion.

Highlights

Focus groups are a qualitative study design where individuals generate narrative data through focused discussions.

Interaction and group dynamics are essential in focus groups as they widen the range of responses and activate forgotten details.

Focus groups can reveal insights that wouldn't be possible in one-on-one exchanges.

They are useful for characterizing social and cultural norms around health areas, behaviors, or care delivery.

Focus groups can help understand how people talk about an issue through natural language use and intonation.

They can explore potentially sensitive topics depending on the topic and respondent group.

Standards for group size in focus groups recommend 5 to 10 participants for optimal dynamics.

It's recommended to have three to five groups per strata to ensure a comprehensive understanding.

Attention to group composition is critical to avoid power differentials and ensure a free exchange of ideas.

Focus groups should aim for diversity while maintaining enough common ground for sharing and comparing.

The discussion guide in focus groups should have no more than 8 to 12 questions, with a clear sequence from introduction to key questions.

Open-ended questions that are conversational and clear are critical for effective focus group discussions.

The 'think back' technique can be useful for grounding respondents in an experience relevant to the discussion.

Avoid asking 'why' questions as they can lead to defensiveness and a search for a 'right' answer.

Giving examples can sometimes lead participants down a particular path, so it's important to be cautious with this technique.

The moderator's role in focus groups requires strong interviewing techniques and keen observational skills.

The moderator must control and guide the discussion without truncating it prematurely.

Respect for participants is crucial, including active listening and concern for their comfort.

Analysis of focus group data should consider the group as the unit of analysis, not individuals.

Creating rapport among group members and establishing a safe space is a primary goal for moderators.

Managing group dynamics is important to prevent any single perspective from dominating the discussion.

Non-verbal information is also important in focus group analysis, with a second person often noting such cues.

Transcripts

hi welcome back to our series on

qualitative research methods I'm lesli

Curry from the Yale School of Public

Health and this module is on a major

qualitative study design focus groups

just a brief overview of the modules the

goal is to enhance our capacity to

conceptualize design and conduct

qualitative research in the Health

Sciences there are a total of six

modules in this series and this module

examines uh the major qualitative study

design focus

groups so what is a focus group in this

picture you see uh a group of

individuals uh sitting in a circle in a

room and some conversation happening a

focus group is a group of people with

certain characteristics who generate

narrative data in a focused discussion

the interaction and the group dynamics

are really essential the interaction

among individuals can do several things

it can widen the range of responses

we're hearing from uh a range of

individuals with a common experience but

of course different individual

perspectives uh and Views the group

dynamics can activate forgotten details

hearing someone recount a story of their

experience might help another remember

you know this happened to me and the

group exchange can also release

inhibitions can make people feel

comfortable uh in describing their

experience with a particular

phenomenon focus groups can be useful

for a number of kinds of uh topics in

the Health Sciences uh the first

characterizing social and cultural norms

around a given uh Health area health

behavior or a type of Health Care

delivery focus groups can be useful for

sharing and comparing really like this

phrase by David Morgan uh who's the

author of the focus group group kit um

and who describes sharing and comparing

as the dynamic in the group where each

member will offer up their perspective

and in that uh context in the discussion

comparing their experience with with

others uh in the room um this can

generate uh insights that wouldn't be

possible uh on in a one-on-one uh

exchange focus groups can reveal how

people talk about an issue because

people are sitting around a table and

exchanging amongst themselves the

researcher moderator can uh listen and

learn the kinds of language people use

uh their uh intonation their views about

a given

issue focus groups can also be useful

for exploring potentially sensitive

topics we mentioned this in the

individual interview module as well and

so it really uh is dependent on the

particular topic and the respondent

group that you'll be working with um to

determine whether or not individual

one-on-one interview format uh would be

most appropriate or whether a group uh

format is most appropriate given your

topic so uh a few a few minutes on

designing focus group studies what do

they look

like well there are some standards for

the group size and number in focus

groups so the principle uh one in terms

of group size is that you want to have

five to 10 participants per group fewer

than five typically uh the Dynamics are

flatter uh there isn't as much moment m

in the group maybe not as much uh speak

and freedom when you have small group

exchange and more than 10 participants

it is very difficult for the moderator

uh to keep the discussion moving uh

flowing well and for each participant to

have enough time uh to express

substantively their view on a given

topic so the range of 5 to 10 uh is a

guide

guideline and the second guideline is

the number of focus groups per strata uh

we typically recommend having three to

five groups per strata so just a minute

on stratification if you determine that

uh given topic uh May um uh generate

some tension or difficulty if it's

addressed say uh with a group of mixed

gender you may decide that it's

important to have focus groups of with

all women and a separate set of focus

groups with all men and if that occurs

you need to be sure that you uh conduct

three groups a minimum of three groups

of women and a minimum of three groups

of

men so group composition attention to

group composition really very critical

um there are a number of ways we can

think about assembling focus groups and

they really depend in great uh to Great

length on the nature of the question

that you're asking so several

considerations we want to avoid power

differentials in the room um among

individuals so uh for instance if you

were conducting a study about um culture

change in nursing homes uh the

pioneering effort to individualize care

and nursing homes by which residents

Express their needs and certified nurse

assistants and nurse AIDS are free to

deviate from schedules in order to

respond to a um resident preference or

need you would want to be mindful of

having a focus group with a certified

nursing assistant or nurse AIDS together

with for instance the charge nurse or

the nursing home administrator um you

could imagine that the dynamic in that

room would really could really inhibit

free exchange so be mindful of power

differentials in the room thinking about

homogeneity and heterogeneity in the

group how alike do you want the group to

be and how different do you want the

group to be uh we're looking for some

diversity so that you have a range of

opinions and yet uh uh you don't have

want to also have homogeneity or

similarity in the group so that there is

enough Common Ground um to share and

compare strangers versus acquaintances

is another consideration in the

composition of grp groups um are you

interested in having people who've never

had an exchange with one another or is

it more appropriate in a given

circumstance to have acquaintances those

who have some familiarity with each

other experts and novices are we looking

to talk to experts in a given area who

have deep knowledge of a phenomenon or

are we looking for more naive uh

View and then stratifying by these

Salient characteristics as I mentioned

it may be gender in a given group uh

where you uh want to pay attention to

those potential Dynamics and create

separate strata for those

groups data collection I like this image

because to me it sort of tells all we

need to know about uh data collection

and focus groups the idea is to just

drop a pebble into the pond and to

stimulate a ripple effect of

conversation the discussion guide there

are some um there's some guidance some

established uh techniques for um

structuring discussion guides in general

uh the number of questions we're looking

for no more than 8 to 12 questions fewer

is better uh it's helpful to kind of

label questions as five or 10- minute

questions one that the researcher comes

in and thinks I don't want them to spend

too much more than five minutes on this

it's a relevant topic that's introducing

them bringing them to the core issue the

10-minute question is where I really

want them to linger and have deeper

discussion the sequence of questions are

also some guide guidelines there the

opening question should be things that

could be answered quickly that are based

on facts you want the individual to use

their voice to not be threatened not

have a tricky question uh to uh

establish them as the expert right so

there's one answer and they know it um

so opening questions are are really very

U useful for setting the stage in the

room an introductory question is to

begin to Foster interaction among the

group and have them begin to focus on

the topic at hand transition questions

link the introduction to the real key

questions and to put the topic in

context so you're moving people some

sort of the broad Comfort uh

establishing questions into the core uh

the core Topic at hand and there should

be no more than two to five key

questions um in the

guide so item writing just some things

to keep in mind conversational clear

simple

language sometimes as researchers we sit

in our teams and we construct these

complex compound sentences that are our

questions for our discussion guide and

when you speak them out loud only then

you can hear maybe how how silly they

sound or potentially off-putting so read

them aloud practice them see whether

they in fact feel conversational and

clear open-ended questions are critical

um again not leading in any way having

very broad uh parameters for the

respondents to begin to generate and

shape the direction of the discussion

the thinkb back technique can be really

very useful asking people to think back

to the last time when you were at the

doctor's office

it brings them out of the room back to a

time and place it grounds them in an

experience where they feel uh then they

can draw upon details that are relevant

to the discussion so that can be

useful avoid if possible asking why this

may seem counterintuitive this is what

we're trying to understand why don't you

do X or Y we don't want to ask this

question uh so boldly and directly it's

very sharp in tone it may cause

defensiveness it may make the respondent

feel like there must be a right answer

and I better give that right answer uh

so in fact we want to avoid the why

question instead uh we we want to invite

people to comment on how something H

happens or to describe their experience

in detail we also want to avoid giving

examples this may lead participants

sometimes this technique can be useful

if you give a very brief example to sort

of get people going but it also uh runs

the risk of leading participants down a

particular path so be cautious on the

examples

be aware of the participants time their

limits of all types the time limits to

attention limits to language various

cultural issues and various

communication skills um we for instance

have done lots of focus groups with

frail older adults in the community and

bringing them to Common spaces libraries

and community centers um to talk about

services that they receiving in their

homes and we need to be very mindful of

their physical Comfort um their ability

to stay engaged in a conversation um the

communication skills from the researcher

um to populations who may not be

familiar necessarily or accustomed to

being um in research environments so

these sensitivities are really very um

very critical in conducting focus focus

groups moderator skills moderating focus

groups um requires a great deal of skill

and really the only way to attain these

skills is to practice moderating uh but

there are some techniques um that are

really very critical to facilitating

constructive and productive discussions

the first is having a strong

interviewing technique this means the

ability to ask an open question and to

receive the information to listen

acutely for opportunities to dig deeper

so having these Keen observational

skills watching what's happening in the

room you can imagine in the moment you

know you have eight people sitting

around a table you're beginning to just

drop that Pebble so there's a ripple

effect and the conversation starts

you're very tuned to the Dynamics in the

group this is one of the unique assets

of a focused group model and so Keen

observational skills watch who's

speaking first who's listening who's

leaning forward who's pulling back it's

really very very um

critical need to have an ability to

control and guide the discussion this

requires in the- moment judgment uh

again we've you think uh back to the

interviewer module where we have the

image of a of a path with a railing kind

of going through a marsh you want to be

able to let the respondent let the group

conversation go and yet you also need to

control it and guide it without

prematurely truncating conversation this

is very tricky and has to be assessed in

the

moment need an ability to suppress our

own personal views uh this um it's

perhaps easier than it sounds we're

often you know researching a topic that

is of great interest to us we probably

have personal views uh but we need to be

really be very neutral um in the role of

moderator and lastly again respect for

the participants so active listening

leaning forward paying attention not

scribbling notes or looking at the tape

recorder or watching the time go by

watching the clock you know active

listening um eye contact with each

individual concern for their comfort in

the space respect for participants is

really also very important to

establishing um a safe space for uh the

data

collection so we're going to listen to

an excerpt from a focus group um and uh

listen carefully really to the moderator

uh some of the audio you'll hear

multiple uh members speaking at once but

listen for the moderator's voice and

then we'll review what you've heard so

let's

listen we're not going to go around the

circle anymore we just need to just join

in whenever you have something to say um

what to you all makes a good d

doctor what what does it take to be a

good doctor would you

say one that listens Mary says okay yeah

is that what you think eile okay yes and

what else about a doctor makes a good

doctor in the office okay interest in

and how would the doctor do

that or how would he show that I talk

you just talking to you and being

concerned about your problem yeah okay

any other thoughts about what makes a

good doctor maybe touching you this is

Jenny you know not not touching you all

over but you know like a nice touch and

that's very good person feels good with

that nice personality yeah okay that's

Dorothy what do you mean by that nice

personality

what kind of things I think they got to

show that they're interested in you you

know okay do you have any ideas of how

they might show how they're

interested okay so what did you hear

there several things happening at once

you hear the moderator interjecting

saying Mary what do you think is that

what you think Emily so identifying

speakers this is important uh for really

the sort of mechanics of uh generating a

data set for focus groups the

transcriptionist has to be able to

identify a given voice uh with a name

some identification so that you're able

to uh understand which person is

speaking at what time and you're able to

look at patterns of speech across

members in the group so being able to

tag a specific name or identification to

a voice is really critical for

transcription and in the moderating we

often we instruct people in the group

before you speak please say your name

this isn't a very natural thing for us

to do and so uh participants often will

just begin talking and so the moderator

can sort of quietly interject you know

Mary said this and did you hear that is

that what you said Emily uh you hear in

this uh in this excerpt an icebreaker

question something very open Easy you

know what does a doctor what does what

does it take to be a good doctor and you

can hear the respondent feeling

confident in describing you know I want

one who you know pays attention to me

one who who uh you know is close in the

interactions who knows your name um do

you hear the moderator asking clarifying

probes what do you mean by that nice

personality uh asking for just a little

more about you you know what uh the

respondent means when she's describing

nice personality uh and then lastly you

can hear the very Dynamic exchanges in

the group um where uh individuals are

starting this is very early in the group

and you can hear them already starting

to reflect back and forth uh across each

other so just to give you a sense of

what the dynamic interplay might sound

like in a focus

group analysis of focus group data this

is an area where I think we often fall

short um there are some assumptions we

may come to the data thinking well it's

just a bunch of individual we'll analyze

it like individual interviews which um

it loses the richness of the group

dynamic and in fact uh doesn't pay

attention to some of the critical

aspects of focus group data which is uh

sort of the group interaction and so

analysis of focus group data requires

careful attention to several

things we have to remember that the

group is the unit of analysis not the

individuals within it and so we're

looking to extract uh the summary of

emerging ideas and themes at the group

level not individual utterances um

within the text so just a mindful as

we're approaching the data we want to be

looking for whether or not uh a theme is

a view of one member or whether it was a

theme for the group was it really only

one participant who felt a given way or

expressed a particular experience or

perspective or was this one where there

be developed some consensus or some

shared view throughout the group

discussion we want to know whether a

question uh whether a response emerged

uh as a result of a question led by the

moderator or whether it was something

that spontaneously came from the group

conversation

we want to note that more text does not

mean the issue is more important

necessarily there may be some very brief

text on something that words great

agreement very quickly and so uh we

don't want to be sort of um uh way

distracted into thinking that if there's

a lot of conversation about something it

means it's really the essence of the

study and so looking at the Dynamics in

the group really very critical

throughout uh throughout the group is

there biasing is there group think is

there a single member who dominates the

discussion so several tips for a good

focus group um creating the Rapport

among the group Members First this is in

contrast to individual interviews where

it's really very much about the

interviewer and the respondent and uh

establishing that uh space for cander

and disclosure right up front in this

instance the moderator wants to be very

very light almost invisible in the room

uh off to the side and really focusing

on the Rel ship among the members uh is

is the primary goal and creating uh a

relationship among them in the first

moments of the group is the um is the

primary primary goal establishing a safe

space um knowing how to make hesitant

people feel comfortable in uh

contributing in that space really also

can be very

useful being prepared to redirect the

group uh so um listening very very

carefully and let letting the group sort

of take itself down a certain path but

not too far and being ready to interject

without squelching the Dynamics this is

tricky uh we we want to bring the group

around gently uh back to the topic at

hand uh and not interject um with too

much control because that can sort of

deflate the momentum in a group so be

careful managing the Dynamics in the

room so there are always Dynamics in

every group that we uh experience

focus groups is no different um and so

there will be uh people who feel more

confident who are more vocal uh who have

stronger opinions there will be others

who uh are more hesitant maybe um uh

feel more uh anxious in the group space

and so managing those Dynamics uh really

is something the moderator is

responsible for from the moment the

group begins through to the end uh

because the domineering uh Dynamics can

constrain uh conversation and the sort

of repeated interjection of a given

perspective or view can also bias the

dialogue so managing those Dynamics is

really very

important and lastly one of the benefits

of focus groups is that we're getting to

watch people as well so being aware of

the non-verbal information in the room

and there's lots of it in our focus

group work we have a primary moderator

who's responsible for sort of dropping

that Pebble and then facilitating the

conversation as it goes and we have a

second person in the room who is doing

uh managing all the logistics so that

they're unobtrusive and um taking

careful note of non-verbal information

in the room who pulls away from the

table who uh seems to be aggressive uh

who is nodding in deference all the time

to another respondent and those kinds of

um uh non-verbal data are really very

useful in interpretation again of the

group

um findings with the group as the unit

of

analysis so thank you for your attention