Decolonization and Nationalism Triumphant: Crash Course World History #40

Summary

In this Crash Course World History episode, John Green explores the decolonization of the 20th century, a period when European empires crumbled, leading to the formation of new nation-states. He discusses the impact of World War II on the decline of imperial ambitions and the challenges faced by newly independent countries, including political instability, economic underdevelopment, and the legacy of arbitrary colonial borders. Green also highlights notable decolonization movements in India, Indonesia, and Africa, emphasizing both the violence and the nonviolent approaches, as well as the ongoing struggles and successes of these nations in building their futures.

Takeaways

• 🌍 Decolonization in the 20th century led to the formation of many new nation-states, challenging the long-standing dominance of empires as the primary form of political organization.
• 🏰 The decline of empires post-World War II was partly due to the discrediting of imperialism, as the Allies fought against Nazi imperialism and could not justify maintaining colonial control over their territories.
• 🇮🇳 The Indian independence movement, led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, sought to create a unified India and employed nonviolent resistance as a key strategy.
• 🔪 The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 was a violent process that resulted in the displacement and death of millions, highlighting the complexities and challenges of decolonization.
• 🌐 The Cold War context of decolonization influenced the political and economic paths of new nations, as they often had to choose between socialist and capitalist influences.
• 🗽 The Dutch colonial system in Indonesia, known as 'cultuurstelsel', was exploitative and unpopular, leading to a long and bloody struggle for independence.
• 🇫🇷 In French Indochina, the end of colonization was marked by violence and political upheaval, with regimes like the Khmer Rouge causing massive loss of life.
• 📚 Post-colonial African nations faced significant challenges due to the lack of educational and institutional infrastructure, which was a legacy of colonial focus on resource extraction rather than development.
• 🛣️ The arbitrary borders drawn by colonial powers created problematic national geographies, often combining diverse ethnic groups into single nations, leading to internal conflicts.
• 📈 Despite the difficulties, many African nations have shown signs of progress and development, such as Botswana and Ethiopia, demonstrating the potential for growth and improvement.

Q & A

What is decolonization and why was it significant in the 20th century?

Decolonization refers to the process by which countries freed themselves from control or influence by European colonial powers. It was significant in the 20th century because it led to the formation of many new nation-states, particularly in Africa and Asia, and marked a shift from empires to nation-states as the dominant form of political organization.

How did World War II influence the process of decolonization?

World War II played a significant role in decolonization by weakening the European colonial powers, discrediting the idea of empire, and creating a context where colonial subjects were more likely to demand independence. The Allies' fight against Nazi imperialism made it difficult for colonial powers to justify continued control over their colonies.

What was the Indian National Congress and why was it important in the context of Indian decolonization?

The Indian National Congress was a political organization founded in 1885 that played a crucial role in India's struggle for independence from British rule. It was important because it provided a platform for Indian nationalists to demand greater autonomy and eventually full independence, leading to India's decolonization.

Who was Mohandas K. Gandhi and how did his approach to nonviolence contribute to India's decolonization?

Mohandas K. Gandhi, also known as Mahatma Gandhi, was a prominent Indian nationalist leader who advocated for India's independence through nonviolent civil disobedience. His approach, which included techniques like hunger strikes and peaceful protests, was influential in mobilizing the Indian population and putting pressure on the British government, ultimately contributing to India's decolonization.

What was the role of Muhammad Ali Jinnah in the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan?

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was the leader of the All India Muslim League who argued for a separate state for Muslims in India. His belief that a unified India was an artificial construct led to the eventual partition of India into two separate nations, India and Pakistan, when the British left in 1947.

What were the consequences of the partition of India in 1947?

The partition of India in 1947 resulted in the creation of two new nations, India and Pakistan, and led to massive displacement and violence. Approximately 12 million people were displaced, and it's estimated that up to half a million people were killed during the partition.

How did the Dutch colonial system of 'cultuurstelsel' impact Indonesia?

The Dutch colonial system of 'cultuurstelsel' required Indonesian peasants to dedicate one-fifth of their land to grow cash crops for export to the Netherlands. This system was exploitative and unpopular in Indonesia, as it did not provide much in return to the local population and contributed to the rise of Indonesian nationalism.

What was the significance of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia during World War II?

The Japanese occupation of Indonesia during World War II was significant because it weakened Dutch colonial control and furthered the cause of Indonesian nationalism. The Japanese placed native Indonesians in more prominent positions of power, which helped to prepare the country for eventual independence.

Why did the French struggle to maintain control over their colonies in Indochina?

The French struggled to maintain control over their colonies in Indochina due to strong nationalist movements, particularly led by communist figures like Ho Chi Minh. The French fought against these nationalist forces from the end of World War II until their defeat in 1954, after which the region transitioned to different forms of governance.

How did Gamal Abdul Nasser's leadership impact Egypt's path to decolonization and its subsequent development?

Gamal Abdul Nasser, who led a coup in Egypt in the 1950s, played a significant role in decolonization by overthrowing the monarchy that was closely tied to British interests. Nasser's secular nationalism and his ability to navigate the Cold War politics allowed Egypt to assert its independence and pursue a path of development that was more aligned with its national interests.

What challenges did newly independent African nations face in terms of governance and development?

Newly independent African nations faced numerous challenges, including the lack of institutional infrastructure necessary for development, limited educational resources, and the undermining of traditional elites by colonial rule. This often led to new rulers with little experience in governance, which could result in instability and underdevelopment.

Outlines

00:00

🌍 Decolonization and Its Impact

This paragraph introduces the concept of decolonization, highlighting how the European empires established in the 19th century shaped the modern nation-states we know today. It contrasts the stability of these empires with the fleeting nature of others throughout history, such as Genghis Khan's Mongol Empire. The speaker, John Green, uses humor to discuss how historical empires were the norm, and how the late 20th century's decolonization was unique in that no new empires emerged to replace the fallen ones. The paragraph also touches on the role of World War II in discrediting the idea of empire, as the Allies fought against Nazi imperialism, making it hypocritical for the colonial powers to maintain control over their colonies after the war.

05:06

🇮🇳 The Complexities of Indian Independence

The second paragraph delves into the specifics of Indian decolonization, starting with the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885. It discusses the initial goals of the Congress Party and other nationalists, who sought to create a modern Indian nation rather than revert to a pre-colonial state. The paragraph introduces Mohandas K. Gandhi, emphasizing his nonviolent approach to achieving Indian independence and his efforts to address social issues like poverty and women's rights. It contrasts Gandhi's vision with that of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who believed in the separate nationhood of Muslims, leading to the partition of India and Pakistan. The paragraph concludes by acknowledging the violence and displacement that accompanied partition, despite the nonviolent protests that characterized the struggle for independence.

10:09

🌏 Post-Colonial Challenges Across Afro-Eurasia

The final paragraph broadens the discussion to other regions affected by decolonization, including Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. It outlines the different paths these new nations took, influenced by the Cold War dynamics and the struggle between socialist and capitalist ideologies. The paragraph also addresses the often violent nature of decolonization and the challenges faced by these nations in establishing stable democracies. It provides specific examples, such as the partition of India, the Dutch exploitation of Indonesia, the French colonization of Indochina, and the complex post-colonial situations in Egypt and various African nations. The paragraph concludes with a recognition of the progress made by some African countries despite the difficulties of decolonization, highlighting the growth and development in regions that have historically faced significant challenges.

Keywords

💡Decolonization

Decolonization refers to the process by which a country regains its full sovereignty from a colonial power. In the context of the video, decolonization is a central theme, highlighting the late 20th-century disintegration of European empires and the emergence of new nation-states. The script discusses various examples of decolonization, such as India gaining independence from Britain and the partition that led to the creation of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

💡Empire

An empire is a group of nations or territories under the dominion of a single sovereign power. The video script uses the term to contrast the historical prevalence of empires with the modern world of nation-states. It mentions empires like Genghis Khan's, the Ottomans, and the European colonial empires of the 19th century, which have shaped many contemporary nations.

💡Nation-state

A nation-state is a sovereign state in which a single nationality occupies the territory. The script discusses the shift from empires to nation-states, particularly in the aftermath of World War II, where former colonies became independent nation-states. It reflects on how most people today have only known a world organized into nation-states.

💡World War II

World War II is the global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving many of the world's major powers. The video script connects World War II to decolonization, noting that the defeat of Nazi imperialism discredited the idea of empire, which in turn influenced the Allies' stance on colonialism after the war.

💡Cold War

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies, from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. The script mentions that decolonization occurred in the context of the Cold War, which influenced the political and economic choices of newly independent nations, often forcing them to align with either socialist or capitalist blocs.

💡Violence

Violence in the script refers to the use of physical force to cause harm or damage. It is discussed in relation to the often-violent process of decolonization, where the overthrow of colonial elites and the establishment of new nations involved conflict and bloodshed, as exemplified by the partition of India and the struggle for Indonesian independence.

💡Nonviolence

Nonviolence is the practice of resolving conflicts or opposing injustice through methods that do not involve physical violence. The video script highlights Mohandas K. Gandhi's use of nonviolent resistance in India's struggle for independence, contrasting it with the violent aspects of decolonization. Gandhi's approach is noted for its moral and strategic significance in the Indian independence movement.

💡Partition

Partition refers to the division of a territory into separate parts, often as a result of political change. The script uses the term to describe the division of the British Indian Empire into India, Pakistan, and later Bangladesh. The partition is noted for its chaotic and violent nature, which resulted in massive displacement and loss of life.

💡Cultural Identity

Cultural identity is the sense of belonging to a cultural group, which is often defined by shared traditions, language, and history. The video script touches on the challenge of forging a unified national identity in diverse regions like India, where different ethnic, religious, and cultural groups had to be integrated into a single nation-state.

💡Economic Development

Economic development refers to the process by which a nation improves its economic well-being and quality of life for its citizens. The script critiques the colonial focus on resource extraction over sustainable economic development, leaving many newly independent nations ill-equipped to thrive in the post-colonial world. It also notes the disparities in infrastructure and education that resulted from colonial policies.

Highlights

Decolonization in the 20th century led to the formation of many modern nation-states.

European empires in the 19th century were as unstable as historical empires like Genghis Khan's.

The late 20th century saw empires disintegrate without new ones emerging to replace them.

World War II discredited the idea of empire, influencing post-war decolonization.

The British colony of India became three independent nations after decolonization.

Decolonization in Southeast Asia led to the formation of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.

The Dutch East Indies became Indonesia after decolonization.

Africa saw significant changes during decolonization, with many new nation-states emerging.

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885, initially not demanding independence.

Gandhi's nonviolent approach to decolonization was unique and influential.

The partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 was not as peaceful as often portrayed.

The Dutch colony system in Indonesia, known as cultuurstelsel, was exploitative.

Indonesia's struggle for independence was long and involved both Dutch and British forces.

The end of French colonization in Indochina was marked by violence and the rise of the Khmer Rouge.

Egypt's decolonization was led by Gamal Abdul Nasser, who played the US and USSR against each other.

Colonial borders in Africa often became the arbitrary borders of new nations, causing issues.

Many African nations have shown growth and progress despite the challenges of decolonization.

Transcripts

Hi, I’m John Green; this is Crash Course World History and today we’re going to talk

about decolonization. The empires European states formed in the 19th century proved about

as stable and long-lasting as Genghis Khan’s leading to so many of the nation states we

know and love today. Yes, I’m looking at you, Burundi.

[singing] DID YOU EVER KNOW YOU’RE MY BURUNDI? YOU’RE EVERYTHING

[theme music]

STAN, DON’T CUT TO THE INTRO! I SING LIKE AN ANGEL!

[theme music]

So unless you’re over 60-- and let’s face it, Internet, you’re not-- you’ve only

ever known a world of nation states. But as we’ve seen from Egypt to Alexander the Great

to China to Rome to the Mongols, who, for once, are not the exception here, [Mongoltage]

to the Ottomans and the Americas, empire has long been the dominant way we’ve organized ourselves

politically -- or at least the way that other people have organized us.

Mr. Green, Mr. Green! So to them Star Wars would’ve been, like, a completely

different movie. Most of them would’ve been like, Go Empire! Crush those rebels!

Yeah, also they’d be like what is this screen that displays crisp moving images of events

that are not currently occurring? Also, not to get off-topic, but you never learn what

happens AFTER the rebel victory in Star Wars. And, as as we’ve learned from the French

Revolution to the Arab Spring, revolution is often the easy part. I mean, you think

destroying a Death Star is hard? Try negotiating a trade treaty with Gungans. Right, anyway.

So, the late 20th century was not the first time that empires disintegrated. Rome comes

to mind. Also the Persians. And of course the American Revolution ended one kind of

European imperial experiment. But in all those cases, Empire struck back… heh heh, you

see what I did there? I mean, Britain lost its 13 colonies, but later controlled half

of Africa and all of India. And what makes the recent decolonization so special is that

at least so far, no empires have emerged to replace the ones that fell.

And this was largely due to World War II because on some level, the Allies were fighting to

stop Nazi imperialism. Hitler wanted to take over Central Europe, and Africa, and probably

the Middle East-- and the Ally defeat of the Nazis discredited the whole idea of empire.

So the English, French, and Americans couldn’t very well say to the colonial troops who’d

fought alongside them, “Thank you so much for helping us to thwart Germany’s imperialistic

ambitions. As a reward, please hand in your rifle and return to your state of subjugation.”

Plus, most of the big colonial powers-- especially France, Britain, and Japan-- had been significantly

weakened by World War II, by which I mean that large swaths of them looked like this.

So, post-war decolonization happened all over the place: The British colony that had once

been “India” became three independent nations. By the way, is this Gandhi or is

this Ben Kingsley playing Gandhi? In Southeast Asia, French Indochina became Cambodia, Laos,

and Vietnam. And the Dutch East Indies became Indonesia. But of course when we think about

decolonization, we mostly think about Africa going from this to this.

So we’re gonna oversimplify here, because we have to, but decolonization throughout

Afro-Eurasia had some similar characteristics. Because it occurred in the context of the

Cold War, many of these new nations had to choose between socialist and capitalist influences,

which shaped their futures. While many of these new countries eventually adopted some

form of democracy, the road there was often rocky. Also, decolonization often involved

violence, usually the overthrow of colonial elites.

But we’ll turn now to the most famous nonviolent-- or supposedly so, anyway-- decolonization:

that of India. So the story begins, more or less, in 1885 with the founding of the Indian

National Congress. Congress Party leaders and other nationalists in India were usually

from the elite classes. Initially, they didn’t even demand independence from Britain. But

they were interested in creating a modern Indian nation rather than a return to some

ancient pre-colonial form, possibly because India was-- and is--hugely diverse and really

only unified into a single state when under imperial rule by one group or another, whether

the Mauryans, the Guptas, the Mughals, or the British. Okay, let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

The best known Indian nationalist, Mohandas K. Gandhi, was a fascinating character. A

British educated lawyer born to a wealthy family, he’s known for making his own clothes,

his long fasts, and his battles to alleviate poverty, improve the rights of women, and

achieve a unified Indian independence from Britain. In terms of decolonization, he stands

out for his use of nonviolence and his linking it to a somewhat mythologized view of Indian

history. I mean, after all, there’s plenty of violence in India’s past and in its heroic

epics, but Gandhi managed to hearken back to a past that used nonviolence to bring change.

Gandhi and his compatriot Jawaharlal Nehru believed that a single India could continue

to be ruled by Indian elites and somehow transcend the tension between the country’s Hindu

majority and its sizable Muslim minority.

In this they were less practical than their contemporary, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader

of the Muslim League who felt-- to quote historian Ainslie Embree-- "that the unified India of

which the Congress spoke was an artificial one, created and maintained by British bayonets.”

Jinnah proved correct and in 1947 when the British left, their Indian colony was partitioned into

the modern state of India and West and East Pakistan, the latter of which became Bangladesh in 1971.

While it’s easy to congratulate both the British and the Indian governments on an orderly

and nonviolent transfer of power, the reality of partition was neither orderly nor nonviolent.

About 12 million people were displaced as Hindus in Pakistan moved to India and Muslims

in India moved to Pakistan. As people left their homes, sometimes unwillingly, there

was violence, and all tolled as many as half a million people were killed, more than died

in the bloody Indonesian battle for independence. So while it’s true that the massive protests

that forced Britain to end its colonization of India were nonviolent, the emergence of

the independent states involved really wasn’t. Thanks, Thought Bubble.

All this violence devastated Gandhi, whose lengthy and repeated hunger strikes to end

violence had mixed results, and who was eventually assassinated by a Hindu nationalist who felt

that Gandhi was too sympathetic to Muslims. Oh, it’s time for the open letter?

An Open Letter to hunger strikers.

But first, let’s see what’s in the secret compartment today.

A cupcake? Stan, this just seems cruel. These are from Meredith the Intern to celebrate

Merebration, the holiday she invented to celebrate the anniversary of her singleness.

Dear hunger strikers, Do you remember earlier when I said that Gandhi hearkened back to

a mythologized Indian past? Well it turns out that hunger striking in India goes back

all the way to, like, the 5th century BCE. Hunger strikes have been used around the world

including British and American suffragettes, who hunger struck to get the vote. And in

pre-Christian Ireland, when you felt wronged by someone, it was common practice to sit

on their doorstep and hunger strike until your grievance was addressed. And sometimes

it even works. I really admire you, hunger strikers. But I lack the courage of your convictions.

Also, this is an amazing cupcake. Best wishes, John Green

Since independence, India has largely been a success story, although we will talk about

the complexity of India’s emerging global capitalism next week.

For now, though, let’s travel east to Indonesia, a huge nation of over 13,000 islands that

has largely been ignored here on Crash Course World History due to our long-standing bias

against islands. Like, we haven’t even mentioned Greenland on this show. The Greenlanders,

of course, haven’t complained because they don’t have the Internet.

So, the Dutch exploited their island colonies with the system of cultuurstelsel, in which

all peasants had to set aside one fifth of their land to grow cash crops for export to

the Netherlands. This accounted for 25% of the total Dutch national budget and it explains

why they have all kinds of fancy buildings despite technically living underwater. They’re

like sea monkeys. This system was rather less popular in Indonesia, and the Dutch didn’t

offer much in exchange. They couldn’t even defend their colony from the Japanese, who

occupied it for most of World War II, during which time the Japanese furthered the cause

of Indonesian nationalism by placing native Indonesians in more prominent positions of

power, including Sukarno, who became Indonesia’s first prime minister.

After the war, the Dutch-- with British help-- tried to hold onto their Indonesian colonies

with so-called “police actions,” which went on for more than four years before Indonesia

finally won its independence in 1950. Over in the French colonies of Indochina, so called

because they were neither Indian nor Chinese, things were even more violent. The end of

colonization was disastrous in Cambodia, where the 17-year reign of Norodom Sihanouk gave

way to the rise of the Khmer Rouge, which massacred a stunning 21% of Cambodia’s population

between 1975 and 1979.

In Vietnam, the French fought communist-led nationalists, especially Ho Chi Minh from

almost the moment World War II ended until 1954, when the French were defeated. And then

the Americans learned that there was a land war available in Asia, so they quickly took

over from the French and communists did not fully control Vietnam until 1975. Despite

still being ostensibly communist, Vietnam now manufactures all kinds of stuff that we

like in America, especially sneakers.

More about that next week, too, but now to Egypt. You’ll remember that Egypt bankrupted

itself in the 19th century, trying to industrialize and ever since had been ruled by an Egyptian

king who took his orders from the British. So while technically Egypt had been independent

since 1922, it was very dependent independence. But, that changed in the 1950s, when the king

was overthrown by the army. The army commander who led that coup was Gamal Abdul Nasser,

who proved brilliant at playing the US and the USSR off each other to the benefit of

Egypt. Nasser’s was a largely secular nationalism, and he and his successors saw one of the other

anti-imperialistic nationalist forces in Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood, as a threat. So once

in power, Nasser and the army banned the Muslim Brotherhood, forcing it underground, where

it would disappear and never become an issue again. Wait, what’s that? …Really?

And finally let’s turn to Central and Southern Africa. One of the most problematic legacies

of colonialism was its geography. Colonial boundaries became redefined as the borders

of new nation states, even where those boundaries were arbitrary or, in some cases, pernicious.

The best known example is in Rwanda, where two very different tribes, the Hutu and the

Tutsis were combined into one nation. But, more generally, the colonizers’ focus on

value extraction really hurt these new nations. Europeans claimed to bring civilization and

economic development to their colonies, but this economic development focused solely on

building infrastructure to get resources and export them.

Now whether European powers deliberately sabotaged development in Africa is a hot-button topic

we’re going to stay well away from, but this much is inarguably true: when the Europeans

left, African nations did not have the institutions necessary to thrive in the post-war industrial

world. They had very few schools, for instance, and even fewer universities. Like, when the

Congo achieved independence from Belgium in 1960, there were sixteen college graduates

in a country of fourteen million people.

Also, in many of these new countries, the traditional elites had been undermined by

imperialism. Most Europeans didn’t rule their African possessions directly but rather

through the proxies of local rulers. And once the Europeans left, those local rulers, the

upper classes, were seen as illegitimate collaborators. And this meant that a new group of rulers

had to rise up to take their place, often with very little experience in governance.

I mean, Zimbabwe’s long-serving dictator Robert Mugabe was a high school teacher. Let

that be a lesson to you. YOUR TEACHERS MAY HAVE DICTATORIAL AMBITIONS. But most strongmen

have emerged, of course, from the military: Joseph Mobutu seized power in the Congo, which

he held from 1965 until his death in 1997. Idi Amin was military dictator of Uganda from

1971 to 1979. Muammar Gaddafi ruled Libya from 1977 until 2011. The list goes on, but

I don’t want to give the wrong impression about Africa.

Because while the continent does have less freedom and lower levels of development than

other regions in the world, many African nations show strong and consistent signs of growth

despite the challenges of decolonization. Botswana for instance has gone from 70% literacy

to 85% in the past 15 years and has seen steady GDP growth over 5%. Benin’s economy has

grown in each of the past 12 years, which is better than Europe or the US can say. In

2002, Kenya’s life expectancy was 47; today it’s 63. Ethiopia’s per capita GDP has

doubled over the past 10 years; and Mauritania has seen its infant mortality rate fall by more than 40%.

Now, this progress is spotty and fragile, but it’s important to note that these nations

have existed, on average, about 13 years less than my dad. Of course, past experience with

the fall of empires hasn’t given us cause for hope, but many citizens of these new nations

are seeing real progress. That said, disaster might lurk around the corner. It’s hard

to say. I mean, now more than ever, we’re trying to tell the story of humans… from

inside the story of humans.

Thanks for watching. I’ll see you next week.

Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan Muller. Our script supervisor is Meredith

Danko. The associate producer is Danica Johnson. The show is written by my high school history

teacher, Raoul Meyer, and myself. And our graphics team is Thought Bubble. Last week’s

phrase of the week was “Meatloaf’s Career.” If you want to guess at this week’s phrase

of the week or suggest future ones, you can do so in comments where you can also ask questions

about today’s video that will be answered by our team of historians. Thanks for watching

Crash Course and as we say in my hometown, Don't Forget To Be Awesome.