The French Revolution: Crash Course European History #21

Summary

The video script explores the tumultuous period of the French Revolution in 1789, highlighting the socio-economic crises leading to its outbreak, the formation of the National Assembly, and the radical changes in governance and societal structure. It details the rise of political factions, the Reign of Terror, and the eventual ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte. The script underscores the Revolution's impact on the concept of nation-states and the birth of modern political ideologies.

Takeaways

• 🏰 The script describes 1789 Europe as a continent in turmoil, with France on the brink of crisis due to war, poor harvests, and a bankrupt state.
• 👑 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette's reign was marked by extravagance and disconnect from the common people, leading to widespread discontent.
• 🗳️ The Estates-General was convened to address the financial crisis, but it highlighted the inequality in representation and led to the formation of the National Assembly.
• 🎾 The Tennis Court Oath symbolized the determination of the Third Estate to enact reforms and establish a nation of citizens with equal rights.
• 🏰 The storming of the Bastille and the subsequent actions in the countryside dismantled feudal privileges and marked the end of the old order.
• 📜 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was a radical document that established the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity, including freedom of religion.
• 🚶‍♀️ Women, inspired by the revolution's ideals, began to advocate for their rights, with figures like Olympe de Gouges publishing the Declaration of the Rights of Woman.
• 🗽 The revolution led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and later a republic, with the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and other reforms challenging the power of the church.
• 💔 The royal family's failed escape attempt and the subsequent war with Austria and Prussia highlighted the instability and external threats to the revolution.
• 🔴 The political spectrum was shaped during this period, with the left-right divide in the assembly hall representing different stances on the monarchy and governance.
• 🗡️ The Reign of Terror under Robespierre and the Jacobins was a period of extreme violence and cultural transformation, where thousands were executed in the name of the revolution.

Q & A

What was the situation in Europe in 1789 according to the script?

In 1789, Europe had experienced numerous wars, leading to territorial changes and significant loss of life. The weather was also unfavorable, affecting crop yields. There was a desire for reform across the Dutch states and the Habsburg Netherlands, inspired by the United States, while Poland was demanding the reversal of their country's partition. France, despite supporting the North American colonies' revolution, remained an absolute monarchy and was on the brink of bankruptcy due to continuous warfare.

Why was France considered to be in crisis in 1789?

France was in crisis in 1789 due to its absolute monarchy, which was virtually bankrupt from the costs of war, a countryside filled with beggars, and a tax system where the poor and middle class bore the brunt. The country was also dealing with bad harvests, high bread prices, and a growing divide between the wealthy aristocrats and the struggling populace.

Who was Louis XVI and what were his interests?

Louis XVI was the king of France in 1789. He had a passion for hunting and was interested in mechanical objects, particularly locks.

What was the significance of the Estates-General in 1789?

The Estates-General was a historical meeting summoned by Louis XVI in response to the financial crisis. It consisted of representatives from the clergy (first estate), the aristocracy (second estate), and ordinary people (third estate). This meeting was significant as it was an attempt to address the grievances of the people and reform the tax system.

What was the Tennis Court Oath and why was it important?

The Tennis Court Oath was a declaration made by the members of the third estate who had retreated to a nearby tennis court. They declared themselves the National Assembly and vowed not to disband until they had established a nation of individual citizens with rights, rather than a kingdom of servile subjects. This oath was a pivotal moment in the French Revolution, signifying the beginning of a push for a more representative government.

What was the impact of the Bastille's seizure on July 14, 1789?

The seizure of the Bastille fortress by the people of Paris on July 14, 1789, was a significant event in the French Revolution. It symbolized the end of the monarchy's arbitrary imprisonment power and marked the beginning of widespread violence and uprising against the old regime.

What were the contents of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen?

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was a document passed by the National Assembly that protected property rights, ensured trial by jury, and guaranteed free speech. It declared that men are born and remain free and equal in rights, including freedom of religion, which was a radical change from the previous system where peasants were seen as neither free nor equal.

Why did the royal family attempt to flee France in 1791?

The royal family attempted to flee France in 1791 due to the escalating violence and instability of the revolution. They likely sought to escape the growing threats to their safety and the monarchy's power.

What was the significance of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790?

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was significant as it confiscated church property and mandated the election of priests by their parishioners. This move further weakened the power of the Catholic Church and its traditional alliance with the monarchy.

What was the political spectrum in the National Convention like after the revolution began?

After the revolution began, political parties in the National Convention arranged themselves with republicans, who wanted to abolish monarchs, on the left, and monarchists on the right. Other parties grouped themselves across the hall, leading to the modern concept of left, center, and right in politics.

How did the French Revolution influence the concept of nation-states and citizenship?

The French Revolution consolidated the idea that a nation is composed of citizens with equal rights, replacing the concept of a kingdom where a monarch ruled subjects. This shift helped usher in the idea of nation-states, where citizens, rather than a king or religion, became the most important component of the nation's identity.

Outlines

00:00

🏰 Pre-Revolutionary France and the Crisis of 1789

This paragraph sets the stage for the French Revolution, highlighting the dire state of France in 1789. Europe has been plagued by wars, leading to territorial shifts and significant loss of life. Poor agricultural yields exacerbate the situation. Reformers in the Dutch states and Habsburg Netherlands aspire to emulate the United States, while Polish citizens resist the partition of their country. France emerges as a paradoxical hero, having supported the North American colonies' fight for liberty while remaining an absolute monarchy at home. The nation is on the brink of financial ruin, with the countryside filled with beggars and the tax burden falling heavily on the poor and middle class. The paragraph introduces Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, whose extravagant lifestyle and disconnect from the common people contribute to the brewing discontent.

05:02

🗳️ The Estates-General and the Rise of the National Assembly

In response to the financial crisis, Louis XVI convenes the Estates-General, consisting of representatives from the clergy, aristocracy, and common people. The Third Estate, feeling underrepresented, breaks away to form the National Assembly, vowing to create a nation of citizens rather than subjects. The Assembly's reform efforts are supported by the common people, leading to the storming of the Bastille on July 14, a pivotal event symbolizing the people's resistance to the monarchy. The aristocracy, fearing the growing unrest, relinquish their feudal privileges, and the National Assembly declares the end of feudal society, passing the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which enshrines individual freedoms and rights.

10:04

👥 The Struggle for Equality and the Impact of War

The National Assembly's decrees mark a radical shift towards equality and freedom, challenging the deeply entrenched social hierarchy and religious dominance. The Assembly's actions include the adoption of a constitutional monarchy and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which nationalizes church property and democratizes the clergy. The royal family's failed escape attempt and the subsequent war with Austria and Prussia further escalate the revolution. Political factions emerge, with the Jacobins advocating for a republic, leading to the National Convention and the eventual abolition of the monarchy. Louis XVI is executed, and the revolution takes a violent turn under the 'Reign of Terror,' led by Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, resulting in the execution of thousands, including Marie-Antoinette and Olympe de Gouges.

15:06

🌏 The Spread of Revolutionary Ideals and the Legacy of the French Revolution

The revolution's ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity resonate beyond France, influencing movements for independence and reform in places like Poland, Spanish colonies in South America, and the French colony of St. Domingue, which would later inspire the Haitian Revolution. The French Revolution solidifies the concept of nation-states built on the principles of citizen rights, challenging the traditional monarchical and religious authority. The revolution also sparks a debate on the nature of societal change, with figures like Mary Wollstonecraft advocating for women's rights and education. Despite its violent nature and the temporary regression into dictatorship under Napoleon, the revolution's emphasis on individual rights and the rule of law paves the way for future democratic movements and the recognition of human rights.

😂 Napoleon Bonaparte and the Future of France

In a lighter note, the script concludes with a Napoleon joke, hinting at the significant role Napoleon Bonaparte would play in the future of France and Europe. His charismatic leadership and military prowess would lead to the expansion of French influence and the spread of revolutionary ideals, even as the republic would eventually revert to a dictatorship under his rule.

Keywords

💡1789

The year 1789 is a pivotal moment in the script, marking the beginning of the French Revolution. It is defined by the crisis in France, with the country being virtually bankrupt and the populace suffering from poor harvests and high taxes. The script uses this year to set the stage for the dramatic changes that would unfold, leading to the end of the monarchy and the rise of a new political order.

💡Louis XVI

Louis XVI was the King of France at the time of the Revolution. His portrayal in the script highlights his personal interests and the stark contrast between his lifestyle and the struggles of the common people. His inability to effectively manage the financial crisis and the growing discontent among the populace contributed to the revolutionary fervor, making him a central figure in the narrative of the French Revolution.

💡Marie Antoinette

Marie Antoinette, the wife of Louis XVI, is depicted in the script as a symbol of the disconnect between the monarchy and the common people. Her extravagant spending and the infamous quote 'Qu'ils mangent de la brioche' (Let them eat cake), although possibly apocryphal, illustrate the perceived indifference of the royals towards the plight of the poor, which was a key factor in the growing revolutionary sentiment.

💡Estates-General

The Estates-General refers to the representative assembly that was summoned by Louis XVI in response to the financial crisis. It consisted of representatives from the clergy, the aristocracy, and ordinary people. The script explains how this body was a catalyst for the revolution, as it brought together different social classes with divergent interests, leading to the formation of the National Assembly.

💡National Assembly

The National Assembly emerged from the Third Estate's dissatisfaction with the Estates-General's voting structure. As described in the script, members of the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly, claiming to better represent all French people. This new assembly was a significant development in the revolution, as it sought to enact reforms and challenge the traditional power structures.

💡Bastille

The Bastille was a fortress and prison in Paris that symbolized the monarchy's arbitrary power. The script recounts the event of July 14, when the people of Paris seized the Bastille, marking a turning point in the revolution. This act was not only about acquiring weapons but also about challenging the authority of the king and the existing social order.

💡Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

This document, mentioned in the script, was a fundamental piece of the revolution's ideology. It established principles such as freedom, equality, and property rights, and the right to a fair trial. The script emphasizes its radical nature, especially in the context of the time, as it represented a significant shift from the traditional hierarchical society to one based on individual rights.

💡Feudalism

Feudalism is the social, economic, and political system that was prevalent in much of Europe, including France, prior to the revolution. The script discusses the end of feudalism in France, marked by the National Assembly's decrees that abolished feudal privileges and obligations, which was a major step towards establishing a more egalitarian society.

💡Terror

The 'Reign of Terror' was a period during the French Revolution characterized by extreme violence and the execution of perceived enemies of the revolution. The script describes how the Committee of Public Safety, under Robespierre, oversaw this period, leading to the deaths of thousands, including members of the nobility, clergy, and even those within the revolution itself.

💡Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte is introduced in the script as a charismatic military leader who rose to prominence during the revolution. He is noted for his role in spreading revolutionary ideals across Europe and eventually becoming the Emperor of France, marking a transition from the republic back to a form of autocratic rule.

💡Citizen

The concept of 'citizen' is central to the script's discussion of the French Revolution's impact on the idea of nation-states. It signifies a member of a nation with rights and responsibilities, as opposed to a 'subject' of a monarch. The script explains how the revolution consolidated the notion of a nation being composed of citizens, which was a foundational shift in the political landscape of Europe and the world.

Highlights

In 1789, Europe was in turmoil with wars, territorial changes, and poor crop yields.

Reformers in the Dutch states and the Habsburg Netherlands aspired to emulate the United States, while Poland sought to reverse its partition.

France emerged as a hero from overseas revolutions due to its support for the thirteen North American colonies.

Despite advocating for liberty in North America, France remained an absolute monarchy facing bankruptcy and a crisis.

Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette's reign was marked by extravagance and disconnect from the poor.

Marie Antoinette's infamous quote, 'Qu'ils mangent de la brioche,' reflects the royal family's disconnect from the populace's struggles.

The French financial crisis led to the summoning of the Estates-General, representing the clergy, aristocracy, and ordinary people.

The Third Estate's formation of the National Assembly and the Tennis Court Oath signified a move towards a more representative government.

The storming of the Bastille and peasant uprisings in the countryside symbolized the people's defiance against the monarchy.

The National Assembly's abolition of feudal privileges and the Declaration of the Rights of Man marked radical societal changes.

The Women's March to Versailles and the subsequent violence highlighted the growing unrest and the people's desire for oversight of the monarchy.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the monarchy's constitutional reform reflected the shifting power dynamics in France.

The French Revolution's impact on political ideologies, with the emergence of left, center, and right political parties.

The rise of the Jacobin club and the radicalization of the revolution under Maximilien Robespierre.

The Reign of Terror, marked by mass executions and the fall of prominent figures, including Marie Antoinette.

The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and the spread of revolutionary ideals across Europe.

The Haitian Revolution, inspired by the French Revolution, and its impact on slave activism.

The French Revolution's consolidation of the idea of a nation composed of citizens, replacing the traditional monarchical rule.

The emergence of conservative political ideology in response to the revolution, as exemplified by Edmund Burke.

Mary Wollstonecraft's advocacy for women's rights and education, influenced by the revolution.

The long-term outcomes of the French Revolution, including the establishment of individual rights and the concept of nation-states.

Transcripts

Hi I’m John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

It’s 1789 and Europe has been through an endless number of wars.

Territory has changed hands, hundreds of thousands of people have died, and crop yields have

been bad lately.

War is bad for agriculture, for one thing, but also the weather hasn’t been too cooperative.

Reformers across the Dutch states and the Habsburg Netherlands want to be more like

the new United States, while Poles are demanding that the partition of their country be undone.

And one kingdom had emerged a hero from all the overseas revolutions because of its support

for the rebels in the thirteen North American colonies.

France has stood up for liberty and democracy and fraternity--in North America, anyway.

At home, it remained an absolute monarchy, and was virtually bankrupt from all the warring.

Its countryside was full of beggars--as was much of the European countryside even as aristocrats

grew ever wealthier.

And the poor and middle-class paid virtually all the tax collected to support these ceaseless

wars.

All of which is to say that in 1789, France--the strongest and most populous country on the

continent--was in crisis.

[Intro] In 1789 Louis XVI ruled France.

He loved to hunt and tinker with mechanical objects, especially locks.

His wife Marie Antoinette was the daughter of Maria Theresa of the Habsburg Empire and

the sister of Joseph II, its current ruler.

In a world where the marriage of two powerful royal families had long been seen as key to

stability and prosperity, what could go wrong?

Marie Antoinette was a big spender who had trouble relating to the poor of which France

had many.

As bad harvests made the price of bread soar, more families couldn’t afford to eat, or

else were eating bread that was cut with up to 50% sawdust.

In response to unaffordable bread, Marie-Antoinette reportedly said, “Qu'ils mangent de la brioche,”

which is a great opportunity to trot out my amazing French accent.

And also, to talk about brioche, which is in the center of the world today.

IIn English, the line is usually translated “let them eat cake,” but as you can see,

brioche isn’t cake exactly.

It’s just a different fancier more delicious kind of bread.

Mmm!

It’s delicious.

Fluffy, eggy, quite light.

I don’t understand why the peasants couldn’t just eat this stuff...

Stan says I’m hopelessly out of touch, to which I say, can I have some more of that

brioche?

At any rate, France as a whole was broke.

Now, its reform-minded ministers tried to revise the tax system so that the church and

the aristocracy would have to pay at least some taxes.

But you’ll recall, there was a group of appellate judges, the Parlement, who had to

register royal decrees, and they refused to register this one.

Bankers, meanwhile, refused to provide the Crown with additional loans.

Which led to a proper financial crisis.

Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

1.

In response to this crisis, Louis XVI was forced to summon the Estates-General

2.

—that is, a group of representatives of the clergy (the first estate),

3.

the aristocracy (second estate),

4. and ordinary people (third estate).

5.

In cities, towns, and villages across the kingdom, people met to set out their grievances

in cahiers or register books

6. for their representatives to take to this historic meeting.

7.

Meanwhile, discontent was rising as Marie-Antoinette played at being a shepherdess

8. in a pretend farm that was built for her on the grounds of Versailles

9.

so she could imbibe the air of nature and play at the work so many were forced to do.

10.

On May 5, 1789 members of the Estates-General paraded in great ceremony through Versailles

to begin deliberations.

11.

Louis XVI wrote of the events that day “Nothing happened.

Went hunting.”

12.

Which just goes to show you that history is about perspective.

13.

Members of the Third Estate, meanwhile, immediately protested that their one vote as a group would

always be beaten by the two votes of the first two estates.

14.

So members of the third estate retreated to a nearby tennis court, declaring themselves

the National Assembly

15. and claiming to represent all French people better than the Estates General did.

16.

These representatives swore (in the so-called Tennis Court Oath) that they would not disband

until they had constructed a nation of individual citizens instead of a kingdom of servile subjects.

Thanks, Thought Bubble.

So, the National Assembly’s moves toward enacting a reform program were backed by the

muscle of ordinary people—many of them furious about injustice and poverty.

On July 14, the people of Paris seized the Bastille fortress—a prison full of weapons

and a symbol of the monarchy’s ability to imprison anyone arbitrarily.

And in the countryside peasants took over chateaux and destroyed aristocratic titles

to land and peasant services.

Terrified aristocrats met on August 4, 1789, and surrendered their privileges as feudal

lords.

The National Assembly then elaborated in a series of decrees declaring feudal society

had come to an end.

That same month the Assembly passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen—a

document that protected property, ensured trial by jury, and guaranteed free speech.

It read, in part: “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.”

And that included freedom of religion.

It’s hard to overstate how radical a change that was from a France in which, just months

earlier, peasants were seen as neither free nor equal, and Catholicism was the kingdom’s

official religion.

On October 5, market women from Paris marched to Versailles in the so-called Women’s March

to bring the king and royal family to Paris, where they could be monitored by the people.

Although the family was unharmed, some members of the royal circle, including the queen’s

best friend, were violated, murdered, and mutilated.

Their heads and genitals were displayed on pikes.

And aristocrats began fleeing the country.

Critically, the Declaration of the Rights of Man also stated that the power of the monarch

flowed not from some divinity, but from the nation.

And to that end, the Assembly proceeded to draw up a constitution, making the monarchy

a constitutional one.

then in 1790, they adopted the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, ultimately confiscating church

property and mandating the election of priests by their parishioners.

And then in 1791, the royal family was like, “we should try to get out of here.”

And they tried to flee but were caught.

Meanwhile, war broke out between the revolutionary government in France and Austria and Prussia,

who were intent on crushing the revolution and putting the royals back in full control.

Partly because they, you know, had a vested interest.

Their relatives were on the French throne, but also, as a general rule, monarchs like

monarchy.

As the republic began to take shape, so did political parties.

They arranged themselves in the assembly hall so that republicans, who wanted to do away

with monarchs entirely, sat on the left and monarchists sat on the right.

An array of others grouped themselves as parties across the hall.

And from this arrangement, we got the modern idea of politicians’ ideas being left, center,

or right.

The Jacobin club, a rising political party, was to the left.

But it soon broke into several factions that were on the center, left, and radical left

of the political spectrum.

Ah, politics, where the left has a right and the right has a left and they both have centers

that no one listens to.

Amid these tremendous changes, women were claiming their rightful place as citizens

to match the official expressions of equality and rights for all.

In 1791, Olympe de Gouges, author and daughter of a butcher, published the Declaration of

the Rights of Woman, stating explicitly women’s equality with men.

Women participated in political clubs and successfully pushed for laws that ended men’s

power over the family and also ended the practice of men getting a larger percentage of inheritances

than women.

As war advanced, women also lobbied for the right to serve in the army.

And was war ever advancing!

In 1792 the Parisian masses, threatened by the approach of foreign royal armies, took

extreme action.

They invaded the Parisian palace where the royal family lived—and forced new elections

for a National Convention.

Then in the fall of 1792, further violence produced the abolition of the French monarchy

and a call for every other kingdom to do the same: “All governments are our enemies,

all people our friends,” the Edict of Fraternity read.

Once the Convention had declared France a republic, in January 1793, Louis XVI was executed

after a narrow vote.

A new instrument of execution called the guillotine carried out what would soon become a bloodbath

against many supposed enemies of the people.

Because it killed so swiftly and allegedly painlessly, the guillotine was considered

an enlightened form of execution.

And that brings us to Maximilien Robespierre.

With the king dead and the church legally abandoned, the Jacobins under Robespierre’s

leadership, committed the nation to a so-called reign of virtue and complete obedience to

Rousseau’s idea of the general will of the people—despite all those freedoms agreed

upon in the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

The Jacobins transformed culture: festivals celebrated patriotic virtue; churches were

turned into temples of reason; dishware carried patriotic mottos; a new “rational” calendar

was created; and clothing was in red, white, and blue—the colors of the revolutionary

flag.

Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, with its Orwellian name and Orwellian mission,

presided over the “Terror” in which people from all classes and walks of life—at least

40,000 of them—were executed in the name of supporting the nation through purges of

enemies of the general will.

Among these in the autumn of 1793 were Queen Marie-Antoinette, Olympe de Gouges, former

mistresses of Louis XVI’s grandfather, and other well-known women.

Spies and traitors were said to be lurking everywhere, especially in women’s political

clubs and anywhere women congregated.

Women seen in public were said to be threats to the revolution.

But as French soldiers began to win their wars abroad, people tired of revolutionary

bloodshed and mounted an effective opposition.

Counterrevolutionary uprisings in the Vendée region of France and activism by moderates

led to the overthrow and execution of Robespierre and several of his closest allies.

And by 1795 new factions headed a conservative government called the Directory.

It inspired the French army to spread revolution to other parts of Europe.

That army was enthusiastic for good reason: the revolution’s anti-aristocratic spirit

allowed for ordinary soldiers to become officers—positions that were formerly allotted exclusively to

noblemen.

One such commoner was named Napoleon Bonaparte.

He was extraordinarily charismatics, not particularly short, and with other ambitious newcomers,

took revolution across the low countries, German states, and even into Italy.

But even without French armies advancing it,revolution was erupting.

During the French Revolution, Poles had revised their constitution, for instance, in 1791

and granted rights to urban people.

But a far different outcome from that in France awaited: while the French pursued revolution,

the other continental powers--Russia, Austria, and Prussia--finished divvying up Poland among

themselves so that it no longer existed.

But Enlightenment ideas of freedom continued to spread.

They spread in Spanish colonies in South America, and also in the rich French sugar colony of

St. Domingue.

The French Revolution, or maybe more properly, the French Revolutions helped people in Saint

Domingue understand that they, too, could seek freedom.

And the ensuing Haitian Revolution inspired slave activism in other places, which you

can learn much more about in an episode of Crash Course World History on that topic.

So when we think about why The French Revolution is so important, one of the big reasons is

that it consolidated the idea that the nation is composed of citizens.

Mostly citizen men at first—a fraternity or brotherhood that replace a kingdom in which

a monarch ruled his subjects.

And this was a huge change for Europe, and eventually the world, because it helped usher

in the idea of nation-states, and the idea that the most important people within those

nation-states are the citizens.

And so enthusiasts for freedom flocked to France from all corners of Europe—if not

in person then at least in their imaginations.

“Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,” wrote poet William Wordsworth.

In contrast, opponents like the British statesman and thinker Edmund Burke deplored the rapid

change and attacks on traditional institutions and the abandonment of accumulated wisdom

from past ages.

Burke’s theories launched conservative political ideology in the revolution’s aftermath.

And we should be clear that the revolution was extremely violent, and in many cases replaced

poverty with poverty, and injustice with injustice.

History, again, is as much about where you sit as it is about what happened.

But for the moment, however, revolutionary ferment remained alive, exemplified in the

writings of English journalist Mary Wollstonecraft, who witnessed the revolution first-hand by

going to Paris.

She defended the quote “rights of man” in a 1791 book and in 1792 she published A

Vindication of the Rights of Woman.

This enduring work compared the women of her day to the aristocracy--little educated, simpering

and ignorant.

Lacking any rational, developed skills, women in Wollstonecraft’s formulation were, like

aristocrats, conniving and manipulative instead of being forthright, skilled, and open like

Emile in the eponymous Rousseau novel.

To end this debased condition, women needed education and legal protection of their person

and their property.

That is, legal equality.

In the long run, the French Revolution had many important outcomes; as we’ve discussed,

a nation formed by consensus of legally equal citizens came to replace a kingdom of subjects

ruled by a king.

The nation’s bedrock was a set of values including the rule of law, the right of free

speech, and the ownership of property.

Rather than the nation’s bedrock being a king, or a religion.

This idea of individual rights, which would later be called human rights, of course becomes

extremely important in the 20th century and beyond.

Yet in the French Revolution and in many other revolutions, as we’ll see, the nation in

times of stress could jettison this consensus about the rule of law and rights and become

dictatorial, searching out enemies within and relying on force instead of consensus

building.

After 1795, further big changes lay ahead for France and Europe as Napoleon Bonaparte

came to play an outsized role on the world stage, and the new republic became a dictatorship

once more.

But we’ll get to that shortly.

Thanks for watching.

And yes, that was a Napoleon joke.