The history behind racial stereotyping | Erika Hall | TEDxColumbiaUniversity

Summary

This script explores the profound impact of names and labels on perception and life outcomes. The speaker, influenced by research showing names can affect job prospects, meticulously chose her daughter's name for maximum success. Contrastingly, her son's name, Kingston, was chosen for its cultural significance, reflecting a shift from analytical to emotional naming. The speaker delves into racial labels, revealing through studies that 'African-American' is perceived more positively than 'Black' in professional contexts. She discusses the historical contexts giving rise to these perceptions and the concept of semantic prosody, where words absorb connotations from their linguistic surroundings. The talk concludes with a call to embrace 'Black' as a symbol of education and intelligence, advocating for a change in how we use and perceive racial labels.

Takeaways

• 🎭 The speaker's fascination with names began with the birth of her first child, emphasizing the potential impact of a name on a person's life trajectory.
• 🔍 A research study was conducted to select the best name for her daughter, based on public perception of competence, likability, and hirability.
• 👶 For her second child, a more sentimental approach was taken, choosing a name (Kingston) that connected to the family's Caribbean roots.
• 🏷 The power and complexity of racial labels were explored, particularly the difference in perception between 'black' and 'African-American'.
• 📊 A study revealed that 'African-American' was perceived more positively in professional settings, with participants more likely to associate it with managerial positions.
• 💼 The semantic prosody theory was introduced to explain how words like 'negro' absorbed negative connotations from their historical context.
• 📚 The historical context of 'African-American' and 'black' was analyzed, showing how they are tied to the Civil Rights and Black Power movements, respectively.
• 📊 Another study demonstrated how racial labels in nonprofit names influenced perceptions and donations, highlighting the real-world impact of labels.
• 🗣️ The speaker suggests three strategies for better understanding and using labels: understanding symbolic associations, disaggregating labels, and allowing individuals to choose their preferred labels.
• ✍️ The speaker concludes that embracing the 'black' label as a symbol of education, intelligence, and poise can change its semantic prosody over time.

Q & A

What is the main argument of the speaker regarding names and labels?

The speaker argues that names and labels have significant power and can influence perceptions and outcomes, contrary to Juliet's belief that a name does not change the essence of something.

Why did the speaker conduct a research study to choose her eldest daughter's name?

The speaker wanted to give her daughter the best chance in society and believed that a name could impact a child's life trajectory, hence she used a research study to select a name that would maximize her daughter's success.

What was the result of the resume audit studies mentioned in the script?

The audit studies showed that resumes with different names received different callback rates, indicating that names can influence hiring decisions.

Why did the speaker choose the name 'Kingston' for her son?

The name 'Kingston' was chosen to tie the child to his ancestral Caribbean roots, reflecting a more meaningful and symbolic naming choice rather than one based purely on research.

How did the speaker's research reveal the difference in perception between 'black' and 'African-American'?

The research showed that white participants perceived the 'African-American' label as more competent, educated, and deserving of higher managerial positions and salaries compared to the 'black' label.

What is semantic prosody and how does it relate to the speaker's discussion on racial labels?

Semantic prosody is the process by which a word absorbs the tone of the words that frequently surround it, becoming associated with positive or negative connotations. The speaker discusses how racial labels like 'negro' and 'African-American' have absorbed the ideologies and undertones of their respective historical periods.

What historical context does the speaker provide for the terms 'African-American' and 'black'?

The term 'African-American' became prominent during the Civil Rights movement, associated with voting and political participation for racial equality, while 'black' rose to prominence in the Black Power movement, associated with economic disadvantage and racial victimization.

How did the speaker's research on nonprofits show the impact of racial labels on perceptions and donations?

The research showed that the 'black' label was associated with goals of eradicating racial injustice and defunding the police, leading to more donations from those wanting to eradicate racial bias, while the 'African-American' label was linked to civil rights and equality, influencing donations from those championing these causes.

What are the three strategies the speaker suggests for making informed choices about labels?

The three strategies are: understanding the symbolic associations of a label by situating it in history, disaggregating labels to consider more specific group identities, and allowing individuals to choose their preferred labels.

Why does the speaker argue against replacing the 'black' label despite its negative stereotypes?

The speaker argues that the 'black' label connects her to a cultural past and signifies dignity, unity, and beauty, and that changing how we use the label can alter its semantic prosody to reflect more positive associations.

Outlines

00:00

🔖 The Impact of Names and Labels

The speaker begins by referencing Shakespeare's 'Romeo and Juliet' to discuss the significance of names and labels, arguing that contrary to Juliet's belief, names do carry weight in society. This is exemplified by the speaker's experience naming her children, where her eldest daughter was given a name chosen through extensive research to maximize her life opportunities. In contrast, her son was named Kingston, a name rich in cultural significance and ancestral ties. The speaker then delves into the power of racial labels, sharing her personal experiences and research that shows how labels like 'black' and 'African-American' can elicit different perceptions and treatment, even influencing job prospects and societal status.

05:01

📚 The Historical and Semantic Weight of Racial Labels

This paragraph delves into the historical context and semantic prosody of racial labels. The speaker explains how the term 'negro' became outdated and negative due to its association with the Jim Crow era, illustrating the concept of semantic prosody—the process by which words absorb the tone of surrounding words. The speaker contrasts this with 'African-American,' a term that rose to prominence during the Civil Rights movement and is associated with political participation and racial equality. The speaker and her colleagues analyzed decades of newspaper op-eds to demonstrate how the terms 'black' and 'African-American' are surrounded by language reflective of their respective historical movements, impacting how these labels are perceived today.

10:01

💡 Strategies for Understanding and Using Labels

The speaker suggests three strategies for making informed choices about labels. First, understanding the historical context and symbolic associations of labels by using tools like Google's Ngram Viewer to see how a label's usage has changed over time. Second, disaggregating labels to recognize that broad categories may mask the unique experiences and challenges of subgroups within them. Lastly, allowing individuals to choose their preferred labels, which can reduce stigma and empower those labeled. The speaker emphasizes the complexity of racial labels, noting how the same label can be associated with both negative stereotypes and positive actions, such as receiving more financial support for a nonprofit focused on racial equality.

15:03

🌟 Embracing the Power of Labels

In the final paragraph, the speaker reflects on the personal and cultural significance of the label 'black,' drawing on her own experiences and the historical context of the Civil Rights and Black Power movements. She argues against abandoning the label 'black' due to its potential negative connotations, instead advocating for a change in how the label is used and perceived. The speaker suggests that by associating 'black' with positive terms like 'Professor,' 'President,' and 'Vice President,' the semantic prosody of the label can shift to reflect education, intelligence, and poise. She concludes by asserting her identity as black and encourages embracing the label as a symbol of strength and cultural pride.

Keywords

💡Semantic Prosody

Semantic prosody refers to the way in which a word absorbs the positive or negative connotations of the words that frequently surround it. In the video, it is explained that words like 'cause' often carry a negative connotation because they are typically followed by negative terms such as 'death' or 'damage,' whereas 'produce' is surrounded by more neutral terms. This concept is crucial in understanding how racial labels like 'negro' or 'black' have absorbed negative connotations over time.

💡Racial Labels

Racial labels are terms used to categorize and identify individuals based on their race, such as 'black,' 'African-American,' or 'negro.' The video explores how these labels carry different historical and social connotations, impacting how individuals are perceived. For example, the term 'African-American' is associated with civil rights and is often perceived more positively than 'black,' which is linked to the Black Power movement and carries different stereotypes.

💡Audit Studies

Audit studies are research methodologies used to measure discrimination by sending out identical applications or resumes with different identifiers, such as names, to see how they are treated differently. In the video, the speaker describes how these studies show that names can significantly influence job prospects, as demonstrated in the research she conducted when naming her daughter.

💡Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement was a pivotal period in American history, advocating for the rights of African-Americans and seeking to end racial segregation and discrimination. The video mentions how the term 'African-American' became prominent during this era, particularly after a speech by Reverend Jesse Jackson. The term is associated with the ideals of the movement, such as voting rights and political participation.

💡Black Power Movement

The Black Power Movement was a political and social movement advocating for the rights and self-sufficiency of black people, emphasizing racial pride and the creation of black political and cultural institutions. The video contrasts this with the Civil Rights Movement, noting that the label 'black' gained prominence during this time and is often associated with more radical ideas about racial injustice and socioeconomic conditions.

💡Names and Identity

Names and identity refer to the idea that the names we choose can shape our identities and how we are perceived by others. The video discusses how the speaker carefully chose her daughter's name based on research to ensure it would give her the best chance of success. This reflects the broader theme of how names and labels can influence life outcomes and social perceptions.

💡Stereotypes

Stereotypes are oversimplified and fixed ideas about a particular group of people. The video addresses how racial labels like 'black' and 'African-American' are loaded with stereotypes that affect how individuals are judged. For instance, the study mentioned shows that the same person labeled as 'African-American' is perceived as more competent and suitable for a managerial position than when labeled as 'black.'

💡Historical Context

Historical context refers to the time period and events surrounding a term or label that influence its meaning and connotations. In the video, the speaker emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical context of racial labels to grasp their current meanings. For example, the label 'negro' is tied to the Jim Crow era, which imbues it with negative connotations that persist today.

💡Labeling Theory

Labeling theory is a sociological concept that explores how the labels we assign to people influence their behavior and identity. The video touches on this idea when discussing how racial labels like 'black' or 'African-American' not only reflect but also shape social realities. The theory suggests that by choosing certain labels, we can either reinforce or challenge existing stereotypes and social structures.

💡Google Ngram Viewer

Google Ngram Viewer is a tool that charts the frequency of words or phrases in books over time, helping to track their historical usage. The video mentions using this tool to understand the rise of the term 'Latinx' and its association with pivotal moments in history, such as the Pulse nightclub shooting. This tool is presented as a way to situate labels within their historical context and understand their evolving meanings.

Highlights

Shakespeare's quote 'What's in a name?' is discussed, suggesting names and labels don't matter, but the speaker disagrees based on research.

The speaker's obsession with names began with naming her first child and the desire to give her the best chance in life.

Audit studies show that names on resumes can significantly affect the likelihood of getting a callback for a job.

The speaker conducted a research study to choose the best name for her daughter, based on perceived competence and likability.

The second child was named Kingston, tying him to the family's Caribbean roots and a more meaningful and symbolic choice.

The power and complexity of racial labels are explored, with personal anecdotes about being referred to as 'black' or 'African-American'.

Research findings show that 'African-American' is perceived more positively in professional settings than 'black'.

The historical context of racial labels like 'negro' and their association with negative ideologies are discussed.

Semantic prosody is introduced as the process by which words absorb the tone of surrounding words, influencing their connotations.

The term 'African-American' became prominent after a speech by Reverend Jesse Jackson, aligning with Civil Rights ideals.

The term 'black' is associated with the Black Power movement and a history of struggle and unity.

A study shows that racial labels in nonprofit names can significantly influence public perception and financial support.

The speaker suggests understanding the historical context of labels, disaggregating them, and allowing self-identification to make informed choices.

Google's Ngram Viewer is recommended as a tool to understand the historical use and connotations of labels.

The importance of allowing individuals to choose their preferred labels is emphasized to reduce stigma and increase personal power.

The speaker concludes that embracing the label 'black' as a symbol of education, intelligence, and poise can change its connotations.

Transcripts

Shakespeare famously pinned the quote

what's in a name he was talking through

his character Juliet as she pleaded with

her lover Romeo that what we call a rose

by any other name would smell as sweet

in her mind names and labels made no

difference because it was the content of

one's character that was weighted the

most heavily and I've learned through

both personal and professional

research that nothing is farther from

the

truth my obsession with names first

stemmed from my eldest daughter's birth

I wanted to give her the best chance at

navigating in at times by a society and

I knew that a name could be

consequential for a child's trajectory

in life because of common research

methodology used in my field in audit

studies researchers create fictitious

resumés that are identical except for

they affix different names to the tops

of each

one after which they send these resumés

out to real jobs and companies and they

assess the percentage of call backs

received depending on which name applied

for the

position so when it came time to name my

eldest daughter my quirky Professor

brain kicked

in and I decided I needed a research

study to find her the the best name that

would offer her the most success in

life seriously I had a thousand survey

takers from Across the Nation assess

each of my name choices on just how

competent likable and hirable they

perceived a person with that name to

be with little sentimentality the

scientists in me chose the name that

rated highest across all measures of my

study true

story now if you're a parent of more

than one kid you may understand why by

the time it got to the second kid he

didn't receive the same rigorous

investigation there was no research

sample or empirical investigation from

my son instead we named him Kingston

which was reminiscent of his ancestral

path so instead of thinking with the

logical analytical left side of my brain

we wanted something more meaningful and

symbolic

both my husband and I have Caribbean

Roots so naming him Kingston tied him to

a history that we never wanted him to

forget my obsession with names and

labels progressed even further when we

started to understand the power and

complexity of racial labels so in

one-on-one conversations with white

counterparts at networking events I

would refer to myself as black and in

response they would refer to me as

African-American

it was as if they were placing black for

African-Americans so not to offend

me now there are technical differences

between the two labels where black is

more of a global term and

African-American refers solely to

residents of the United States but

colloquially within this country we

treat the two

interchangeably and I certainly wasn't

offended by the use of either one but I

did find my counterpart's behavior to be

strange after multiple interactions like

this I started to wonder whether there

was a stigma inherent in the Black Label

that I was missing so the researcher and

me set out to test whether white people

perceived black people differently than

African-Americans in a series of studies

that I collected with Sarah Townson

Katherine Phillips and James Carter we

created fictitious application forms

that were identical except for in one we

ident identified the candidate as black

and in the other we identified the

candidate as

African-American the results shocked me

the white participants who evaluated the

African-American candidate were twice as

likely to believe that that candidate

belonged in a managerial position rather

than the same exact candidate but who

was described as black the

African-American label LED participants

to believe there was a completely new

candidate

one who was more competent educated and

worthy of a higher salary this is like

$88,000 that we're talking about for

this

label it made me think back to my

cocktail party participants and wonder

whether the Black Label conjured up all

these negative stereotypes and they were

reticent to apply those stereotypes to

me I decided to dig even deeper to

investigate how racial labels even

become imbued with stere stereotypical

content and to do so I had to go back in

time let's take the racial label negro

most Americans will consider it negative

or at least

old-fashioned in fact it was removed

from the Census after 2010 because of

complaints that it was negative outdated

and reminiscent of the Jim Crow

era I realize that this racial label

evoked the historical period it gained

prominence with

in negro was frequently used during a

time that furthered Jim Crow ideology

therefore it's not terribly surprising

that it soaked up some of this ideology

and those undertones continue on with

the word even

today now the process of a word

absorbing the tone of the words that

frequently surround it is called

semantic

Pro and a word gains semantic Pro when

it absorbs the the positive or negative

tone of the words that frequently prede

or follow it in natural language I'm

going to give you an example okay the

drug produced increased blood flow in

the

extremities

or the blood caused increased blood flow

in the

extremities if I'm trying to assess the

side effect as being positive or

negative which one sounds more

negative raise your hand if you think

it's the first

one the second

one exactly the second one sounds more

negative even though produced and cause

are technically synonyms with the same

definition in the

dictionary and this is because cause is

typically followed by more um negative

terms like death problems and damage

whereas produce is typically followed by

more neutral terms in natural language

therefore these terms have absorbed the

meaning of the words that frequently

surround them and that persists even

when those other following words are no

longer

present in the same manner negro

semantically soaked up all of the

ideology of Jim Crow that surrounded it

and if we want to start to understand

the undertones of the African-American

and black labels then we can look into

their historical

context the term African-American became

prominent after a 1988 speech where

Reverend Jesse Jackson declared that

Americans of African descent now wanted

to be called

African-American Jesse Jackson

exemplified civil rights ideals after

getting his start working under Martin

Luther King

Jr Civil Rights ideology uh professed

voting and political participation as a

means for racial minorities to achieve

Racial

equality conversely the Black Label Rose

to prominence in the Black Power

movement where stokeley carmichel who

later identified as quam Tor championed

its use black power ideology suggested

that white supremacy had economically

disadvantaged black people leaving them

destitute racially victimized and

subject to poor socioeconomic condition

now let's go back to this idea of

semantic procity because my colleagues

and I collected and analyzed over 40

years worth of op-eds in major US

newspapers and found that paragraph

segments con turnning containing the

term black were more frequently

surrounded by language reminiscent of

the Black Power movement whereas those

containing the term African-American

were more frequently surrounded by

language reminiscent of the Civil Rights

movement now these findings aren't just

a historical curiosity they actually

have real

consequences in one of our studies we

had white Americans evaluate nonprofits

committed to Racial equality except for

we varied the racial label in the

nonprofits name so one of the nonprofits

was named the African-American Alliance

and the other was named the black

Alliance our participants believed that

the black Alliance iance was

significantly more likely than the

African-American Alliance to have a goal

of eradicating racial Injustice to

consider Malcolm X their Idol and to

have an aim to defund the police whereas

those believe that the African American

Alliance was more likely to Champion

civil rights and inequality and equality

and consider the teachings of Martin

Luther King Jr and also have a aim to

end voter

suppression the these and coded meetings

guided how much money white participants

decided to financially donate to these

nonprofits and which ones they decided

to donate

to for example white Americans who

wanted to eradicate racial bias were 99%

more likely to donate to the black

Alliance rather than the

African-American Alliance whereas those

who really wanted to Champion civil

rights and inequality in equality were

50% less likely to donate to the black

organization than the African-American

one these simple choices of labels

created very different organizations in

the minds of my participants one's tied

to the historical origins of these

labels I also want to draw your

attention to how complex these different

consequences are on the one hand I'm

telling you that black is related to a

candidate's incompetence and then on the

other hand I'm saying that it spawns

more financial support for a nonprofit

gear to Racial equality and I can

imagine how these different Myriad of

consequences might leave you even more

confused about which label to choose so

here are three things we can do to make

more informed choices about the labels

we use to Divine ourselves and

others first to understand the symbolic

associations of label we can situate the

label in history an easy and fascinating

way to do this is to use Google's Ingram

viewer which charts the use of the label

over

time take the label Latin x a gender

neutral term used to describe a

descendant of Latin America when was

this label used most frequently well we

see the rise of Latin X after

2010 what do we know about that time

well this this time period corresponds

with a few pivotal dates that brought

gender and sex identity issues to light

for example the term latinx became more

prominent on Twitter during the tragic

shooting at paulse night club a gay bar

frequented by the Latin American

community and what does this tell us

about current customs and Norms well on

the one hand latinx is still a

relatively rare word in comparison to

Hispanic Latin or Latina I think this

may speak to the marginalization of

non-binary people but on the other hand

the X and Latin X reads well in English

but it flows so awkwardly in Spanish

latinis one of the predominant languages

of the people that it professes to

label the second thing we can do is

disaggregate the label when we

categorize people into a group we

believe that they're categorized for a

reason

and that the people within the group

share more in common with each other

than they do with people outside the

group so labels can be broad think bipo

aapi and Latinos or they can be more

specific think Nick uh black Pacific

Islander in

Nicaraguan often the more specific label

is more meaningful but that's dependent

on the context of its use so if I wanted

to talk about the disadvantages is uh

faced by non-whites I could use the term

bipac but often what we find is that the

sub groups do not face the same

consequences as the broader group for

example even though uh the aapi label is

uh touted as the model minority because

of their High median income we find that

the median income for Pacific Islanders

is even less than the US national

average so in this case using broader

group labels aapi rather than P specific

group labels Pacific Islander May blind

us to the struggle of the specific

group third and finally allow people to

choose their preferred label this with

the caveat that you'd be repeating a

racial label not a racial

slur and this method takes the anxiety

out of knowing which label to choose

think back to my cocktail parties where

I describe myself as black it also

allows the self labor labeler to reduce

the stigma associated with their label

so research by my wonderful doctoral

advisor Adam galinsky suggests that when

people self-label with a derogatory

label they're able to attenuate the

stigma in that label and they're also

rated as more powerful by

others people often ask me if they

should stop using the Black Label due to

some of its implicit stereotypes and my

answer to that is a resounding

no the Black Label transports me to a

point in time where the words that

surrounded that label signified dignity

unity and

Beauty I'm an 80s baby but it teleports

me to the 60s and 70s with by black

signs and black is beautiful

signs back to the music of Marvin Gay

and Tammy Terell music that nourishes my

soul back to a time where there were

immense struggles yes but there was an

incredible amount of unity tenacity and

power now you'll recall that when naming

my own children I wanted to give my

daughter a name that would Shield her

from bias but that also t tide my son to

a cultural path that would nourish his

life and guide him in the

future this tension is no different for

racial

labels I may have to contend with a

world that will box me in when I label

myself black but that label also makes

me nostalgic for a cultural past that

only my elders

experienced so I'm going to leave you

with a simple

solution the way semantic it works the

Black Label is only going to change when

how we use it

changes when black is used to describe

Professor President and Vice President

our lexicon will adapt and soak up the

positivity of those surrounding

words if you ask me I am black without

question and you don't have to replace

black for African-American in any of our

cocktail party

interactions but until we truly embrace

the Black Label as a symbol of

Education intelligence and

Poise mark my words that a rose Will

Never Smell a

week