The Islamic World: 1000 Years in 18 Minutes

Summary

This script chronicles a millennium of Islamic history, from the Arabian Peninsula's transformation by Muhammad's teachings to the rise and fall of Caliphates and Sultans. It covers the spread of Islam, the emergence of Shia-Sunni divide, the Golden Age of Abbasids, the Crusades, and the eventual decline with the Mongol invasions and the rise of the Ottoman Empire, marking the transition from Middle Ages to modernity.

Takeaways

• 🌏 The Arabian Peninsula, once a desert landscape, became the heartland of a vast Islamic civilization.
• 🕌 Muhammad, born in Mecca around 570 CE, is considered the last prophet in Islam and spread monotheism among the Arabs.
• 📖 The Qur'an, central to Islam, was revealed to Muhammad over years and later compiled into a single text.
• 🏺 After Muhammad's death in 632, the title of Caliph was established, leading to the formation of the first Muslim state with institutions and bureaucracy.
• 🏰 The Rashidun Caliphs expanded the Caliphate from Iran to North Africa, leading to the collapse of the Sasanian Empire and significant losses for the Byzantine Empire.
• 🔍 The division between Shia and Sunni Muslims emerged from disputes over rightful leadership and the succession of Ali ibn Abi Talib.
• 🏛️ The Umayyad Dynasty moved the capital to Damascus and led the second wave of conquests, establishing an empire from Central Asia to the Iberian Peninsula.
• 🌳 The Abbasid Dynasty, after a period of upheaval, ruled for over five hundred years and is known for the Golden Age of Islamic civilization, with advancements in science, literature, and philosophy.
• 🐫 The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan, became the largest contiguous land empire in history, causing the end of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258.
• 🏰 The Ottoman Empire, established by Osman, conquered Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the beginning of the Ottoman Caliphate which lasted until the 20th century.

Q & A

What was the religious landscape of the Arabian Peninsula before the rise of Islam?

Before the rise of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited mainly by nomadic tribes who were polytheists, worshipping many deities.

Who is considered the last prophet in Islam, and what was his role?

Muhammad is considered the last prophet in Islam, chosen by God to spread monotheism among the Arabs.

What significant event marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar?

The migration of Muhammad from Mecca to the city of Medina marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

What was the title given to Muhammad's successors in the Islamic world?

The title given to Muhammad's successors was 'Caliph', meaning 'Successor'.

How did the Umayyad dynasty change the political structure of the Caliphate?

The Umayyad dynasty introduced a dynastic system where the position of Caliph was passed down from father to son.

What was the significance of the battle of Tours in the context of Islamic expansion?

The Muslim defeat at the battle of Tours marked the end of Muslim expansion in the west and prevented the Islamization of Western Europe.

What was the cultural impact of the Abbasid period on Islamic civilization?

The Abbasid period is considered the Golden Age of Islamic civilization, during which there was a flourishing of arts, sciences, and scholarship.

How did the Crusades affect the Islamic world?

The Crusades led to the occupation of Jerusalem by European forces and the establishment of several states on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, which lasted for 200 years.

What was the role of Saladin in the history of the Islamic world?

Saladin was a Sunni Kurdish leader who eliminated the Shia Fatimid rule, founded the Ayyubid dynasty, and freed Jerusalem from Christian control.

How did the Mongol Empire impact the Islamic world?

The Mongol Empire, under Hulagu Khan, brought an end to the Abbasid Caliphate by sacking Baghdad and massacring its inhabitants, which marked the end of the Islamic Golden Age.

What was the significance of the Mamluk Sultanate in defending the Islamic world?

The Mamluk Sultanate played a crucial role in defending the Islamic world by defeating both the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut and later crushing the Crusaders.

How did the Ottoman Empire change the political landscape of the Islamic world?

The Ottoman Empire, after conquering Constantinople, became a major power in the Islamic world, and its sultan Selim the Grim declared himself Caliph, becoming the leader of Sunni Islam.

Outlines

00:00

🌟 The Emergence of Islamic Civilization

The script begins by highlighting the unexpected rise of a vast civilization in the Arabian Peninsula's desert landscape. It describes the Arabian Peninsula's position between the Persian and Byzantine empires and the predominance of polytheism among its inhabitants. The birth of Muhammad in Mecca around 570 CE and his mission to spread monotheism is detailed. His persecution, migration to Medina, and the establishment of Islam are covered. The paragraph also discusses the formation of the Muslim nation, the crisis following Muhammad's death, and the establishment of the Caliphate by his successors. The 'Rashidun' Caliphs' reign, military campaigns, and the expansion of the Caliphate are outlined. The internal tensions leading to assassinations and the Shia-Sunni divide are also mentioned. The Umayyad dynasty's rise to power, the move of the capital to Damascus, and their conquests are detailed, along with the end of Muslim expansion in the west after the battle of Tours. The Umayyad's centralization efforts, construction projects, and the eventual decline due to internal conflicts and the Karbala tragedy are also covered.

05:04

🏰 The Abbasid Dynasty and the Golden Age of Islam

This section details the Abbasid dynasty's rise to power in 750, ending the Umayyad rule. The Abbasids' lineage to Muhammad's uncle, Abbas, and their long-lasting rule are mentioned. The Abbasids' victory at the battle of Talas and their focus on internal development post-expansion are highlighted. The move of the capital to Baghdad and the city's emergence as a center for scholars and scientific advancements mark the beginning of the Islamic Golden Age. The Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid's patronage of scholars and diplomatic relations are noted. However, the Abbasids' loss of control over the empire and the rise of local Muslim dynasties are also discussed. The multicultural nature of the Islamic world with the rise of Persian and Turkic elements is emphasized. The western and eastern frontiers' developments, including the Umayyad remnants in Iberia and Persian dynasties, are outlined. The Buyid and Fatimid dynasties' rise, the formation of Shia Islam, and the Turkic migration and conversion to Sunni Islam are also covered.

10:08

🏹 The Seljuks, Crusades, and the Fall of the Abbasids

The script describes the Seljuks' rise to power in 1055, their defense of the Abbasids against the Fatimids, and the Sunni resurgence. The symbolic importance of the Abbasid Caliph and the Battle of Manzikert's significance in opening Anatolia to Turkic tribes are highlighted. The transformation of Anatolia into a Turkic-Muslim land and the Crusades' launch by the Catholic Church are detailed. The Crusaders' occupation of Jerusalem and the Muslims' perception of them are covered. Saladin's rise, the Ayyubid dynasty's establishment, and Saladin's victories over the Crusaders are outlined. The Mongol Empire's expansion and the fall of the Khwarazmian Empire due to a conflict with the Mongols are also discussed. The Mongol invasion of the Islamic heartland, the sack of Baghdad, and the end of the Abbasid Caliphate are detailed, marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age.

15:12

🏰 The Mamluks, Mongols, and the Rise of the Ottoman Empire

This section covers the Mamluks' rise to power, their victories over the Mongols and Crusaders, and their image as defenders of Islam. The reestablishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo and the Mamluks' 250-year rule are mentioned. The Mongol Empire's fragmentation and the Ilkhanid dynasty's conversion to Islam and cultural contributions are highlighted. The rise of the Timurid Empire and its cultural achievements are noted. The emergence of the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia and its conquests, including Constantinople, are detailed. The Ottoman sultan Selim's expansion of the empire and his declaration as Caliph are covered. The formation of the 'Gunpowder Empires' and the Ottoman Empire's survival until the 20th century are also discussed.

Keywords

💡Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula is a large peninsula in Western Asia, which includes countries such as Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. In the context of the video, it is the birthplace of the Islamic civilization, where the Prophet Muhammad was born and where the religion of Islam originated. The script describes how a vast civilization emerged from the desert landscape of this region, indicating its historical and cultural significance.

💡Muhammad

Muhammad is the central figure of Islam, considered by Muslims to be the last prophet of God. The video script mentions his birth in Mecca and his role in spreading monotheism among the Arab tribes, which was a major shift from the previous polytheistic beliefs. His life and teachings form the foundation of Islamic faith and practices.

💡Qur'an

The Qur'an is the holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. The script refers to the Qur'an as being revealed to the Prophet in segments over many years and later compiled into the central book of Islam. It is considered the ultimate source of guidance for Muslims.

💡Caliph

A Caliph is the title for the political and religious leader in a Muslim state following the death of Muhammad. The video explains how the title was established to mean 'Successor' and how the first four caliphs, known as the 'Rashidun', were chosen based on their affiliation with the Prophet. The concept of the Caliphate is integral to understanding the political structure of early Islamic states.

💡Rashidun Caliphs

The Rashidun Caliphs refers to the first four caliphs of Islam: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. They are considered the 'Rightly Guided Caliphs' and their rule is seen as a period of prosperity and unity in the Islamic world. The script highlights their role in expanding the Caliphate and establishing the first Muslim state.

💡Umayyad Dynasty

The Umayyad Dynasty was the second Islamic caliphate, established by the Umayyad family in Damascus. The script describes how they ruled for 90 years and led the second wave of conquests, creating an empire that stretched from Central Asia to the Iberian Peninsula. Their rule marked a shift to a hereditary system of succession.

💡Abbasid Dynasty

The Abbasid Dynasty succeeded the Umayyads and ruled for over five hundred years. The video script mentions their move of the capital to Baghdad and their patronage of scholars, artists, and scientists, which led to the Golden Age of Islamic civilization. The Abbasids are also noted for their loss of control over the empire in later years.

💡Shia and Sunni

Shia and Sunni are the two main denominations of Islam, originating from a disagreement over the rightful successor to Muhammad. The script discusses the tensions between the supporters of Ali, who became Shias, and their opponents, who became Sunnis. This division is the largest religious rift within Islam and has had profound implications for Islamic history.

💡Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, was the largest contiguous land empire in history. The script describes its impact on Islamic history, particularly the sack of Baghdad by Hulagu Khan, which led to the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and marked the end of the Islamic Golden Age.

💡Crusades

The Crusades were a series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims for control over the Holy Land. The video script mentions the launch of the Crusades and the establishment of Crusader states along the Mediterranean. The Crusades had a significant impact on the Islamic world and are an important part of the narrative of conflict and interaction between Islamic and Christian powers.

💡Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was a state that grew to be one of the most powerful empires in the world, lasting from the 14th to the early 20th century. The script notes its conquest of Constantinople in 1453, which ended the Byzantine Empire and is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages. The Ottomans also declared themselves Caliphs, becoming the last Caliphate in Islamic history.

Highlights

A vast civilization emerged from the desert landscape of the Arabian Peninsula in late antiquity.

Caliphs and Sultans reigned over immense empires through eras of prosperity and catastrophe.

The Arabian Peninsula was the backyard of great empires in the 6th century.

Muhammad, born in Mecca around 570 CE, was chosen by God to be the last prophet.

The Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in segments over many years.

Muhammad migrated to Medina, marking the beginning of the Islamic calendar.

The first Muslim state emerged with institutions, taxes, and bureaucracy during the Rashidun Caliphate.

The Rashidun Caliphate expanded the Caliphate from Iran to North Africa.

The Umayyad dynasty established an empire stretching from Central Asia to the Iberian Peninsula.

The Muslim defeat at the battle of Tours marked the end of Muslim expansion in the west.

The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, ending a period of upheaval.

The Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad, which became the largest and most prosperous city in the world.

The Abbasid period is considered the Golden Age of Islamic civilization.

The Crusades were launched in 1095 with the goal of liberating holy places from Muslim control.

Saladin, a Sunni Kurdish leader, defeated the Crusaders and freed Jerusalem in 1187.

The Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in history, expanded under Genghis Khan.

The Mongols destroyed Baghdad in 1258, ending the Islamic Golden Age and the Abbasid Caliphate.

The Mamluk Sultanate, composed of Turkic slave-soldiers, defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut.

The Ottoman Empire, founded by Osman, conquered Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Middle Ages.

The Ottoman sultan Selim the Grim declared himself Caliph in 1517, becoming the leader of Sunni Islam.

The Ottoman Empire, along with the Safavid and Mughal Empires, formed the 'Gunpowder Empires'.

The Ottoman Empire survived for 600 years and fell in the 20th century after World War I.

Transcripts

In late antiquity, no one could envision that a  vast civilization would emerge from the desert  

landscape of the Arabian Peninsula.  But following far reaching conquests,  

Caliphs and Sultans reigned over immense empires  - through eras of prosperity, and of catastrophe.

This, is a thousand years of Islamic history  - focusing on its middle eastern heartland.

In the 6th century, the Arabian Peninsula was  the backyard of great empires - the Persian  

Sasanian Empire in the east, and the Christian  Byzantine Empire in the west. The Arab inhabitants  

of the peninsula were an ethnic and cultural  group consisting mainly of nomadic tribes. 

Most of them were polytheists - worshiping  many deities. This was all about to change. 

Around 570 CE, Muhammad was  born in the city of Mecca.

According to Muslim tradition, he was chosen  by God to serve as the last prophet in a line  

of prophets - including Abraham, Moses, and  Jesus. Muhammad was to spread monotheism in  

its true form among the Arabs. Tradition holds  that over many years, the Qur'an was revealed  

to the Prophet in segments, and was later  compiled into the central book of Islam.

At first, Muhammad was persecuted. But after  migrating to the city of Medina, an event that  

marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar - he  formed the new religion, consolidated the Muslim  

community, waged wars against idolaters, and  united the Arab tribes into a Muslim nation.

Muhammad died in 632. It was a time of  crisis - who would succeed the religious,  

social, political and military leader?  The question of rightful leadership  

will continue to be a central theme in  the Islamic world throughout the ages.

Muhammad's heirs established the  title of Caliph - meaning "Successor".  

The first four caliphs, known as the "Rashidun" or  “Rightly Guided Caliphs”, were chosen one by one  

based on their affiliation with the Prophet and  personal qualities. They held power for 30 years.

During this period, the first Muslim state emerged  - with institutions, taxes and bureaucracy.  

The Caliphs conducted military campaigns,  

and in a rapid, colossal process, expanded  the Caliphate from Iran to North Africa.  

The Byzantine Empire lost many territories,  and the Sasanian Empire collapsed.

Muslim tradition considers the Rashidun  period as the Glory days of Islam. However,  

it was characterized by acute internal tensions,  and three of the four Caliphs were assassinated.  

In particular, tension mounted around  the supporters of Ali ibn Abi Talib,  

Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. This  group, that came to be known as Shias,  

claimed that Muhammad had appointed  Ali as his successor, and therefore  

he and his descendants were the only  legitimate rulers. On the other hand,  

their opponents, who would later be called  Sunnis, did not recognize this appointment. 

In time, the political divide will become  the biggest religious rift in Islam.

In 661, the Umayyads, an Arab family that settled  in Syria, came to power and ruled for 90 years.  

The Islamic capital moved from  the Arabian Peninsula to Damascus.  

The new authority brought with it  a new political system: a dynasty,  

where the position of Caliph is  passed down from father to son.

The Umayyad dynasty led the  second wave of conquests,  

establishing an empire that stretched from  Central Asia to the Iberian Peninsula.  

The Muslim defeat to Frankish forces in the  battle of Tours marked the end of Muslim  

expansion in the west, preventing  the Islamization of Western Europe.

The Caliph Abd al-Malik strove  to centralize power in Damascus,  

strengthened the Arab identity of the  empire, bolstered its administrative system,  

and initiated construction projects -  Notably, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

But social and political divisions,  rebellions and civil wars shook the  

Umayyad Caliphate. In the battle of  Karbala, the Umayyads murdered Ali's son, 

delivering a resounding and  formative blow to the Shias.  

Finally, in the mid-8th century, the  various oppositions to the ruling power  

organized into a military force that  brutally massacred the Umayyad family.

In 750, out of the chaos, the  Abbasid dynasty rose to power. 

They were a Sunni Arab family that took pride  in its lineage to Abbas, Muhammad's uncle. 

The period of upheaval had come to  an end. The leadership of the Abbasid  

caliphs lasted for more than five hundred years.

Immediately following their ascension to power,  Muslim forces won the battle of Talas against  

the Chinese Empire, bringing to a close the  advance in the east. The Abbasids ceased  

the expansionist policy, turning their gaze  inward, to the construction of the Caliphate.

They moved the capital from Damascus to a new city  they built: Baghdad. It soon became known as the  

largest and most prosperous city in the world. The  Caliphate served as a fertile ground for poets,  

writers, physicians, philosophers and astronomers.  Scientific writings in Greek and other languages  

were translated into Arabic, forming the  foundation of massive original scholarship.  

And so, the Abbasid period is considered  the Golden Age of Islamic civilization.

The Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid,  known from the tales of “Arabian Nights”,  

served as a patron of scholars, maintained  diplomatic relations with Charlemagne,  

and even sent an elephant to Europe,  arousing excitement in the Frankish kingdom.

But alongside this flourishing, starting from  the mid-9th century the Abbasids in Baghdad lost  

control throughout the empire, while local Muslim  dynasties gained power and encroached on wide  

territories. Gradually, the Caliph lost political  and military power, and became a mere figurehead.  

In addition, Arab exclusivity in  the Caliphate weakened - as Persian  

and Turkic elements gradually rose to prominence.  

The Islamic story ceased to be only  Arab, and became a multicultural one.

In the west, Iberia was never ruled by the  Abbasids, but by a remnant of the Umayyad dynasty. 

The Islamic presence in Spain  lasted hundreds of years,  

slowly being pushed back by  the Christian Reconquista.

In the east, various Persian dynasties  ruled at the expense of the Abbasids.  

Some of them were the engine behind a revival  of Persian culture, which received a severe blow  

with the Arab conquest. The Persian language  was reborn, and adopted the Arabic script.

In 945, the Persian Buyid  family took control of Baghdad. 

Even though the Buyids were Shias - they  chose not to oust the Sunni Abbasid Caliph,  

but to limit his power, while controlling a  confederation spanning Iraq and western Iran.  

Their presence lasted for  more than a hundred years.

At the same time, the Fatimids gained power. They  were an ambitious Arab Shia dynasty that traced  

itself back to Fatima, Muhammad’s daughter  and wife of Ali. The Fatimid dynasty spread  

through North Africa to Egypt, established Cairo  as its capital, and from there ruled vast areas.  

It called for the overthrow of the Abbasid  Caliph, managed networks of Shia missionaries,  

and was suspected of subversive activity  - causing panic among the Sunni Caliphs. 

The Fatimids ruled their “shadow-caliphate” for an  

impressive 200 years, but  failed to defeat Baghdad.

In the 10th century, against the backdrop  of the political success of Shia dynasties  

such as the Fatimids and the Buyids,  Shia Islam took shape - turning from  

a collection of political groups  into defined religious movements.

In the 10th and 11th centuries,  political and climatic challenges  

struck the steppes of Central Asia, stirring  the movement of tribes of Turkic peoples. 

They were nomadic, economically  based on horses and other livestock,  

and excellent mounted archers.  Many came into the Middle East.  

The process was threefold: conversion to Sunni  Islam, migration, and political takeover.

In 1055, the Seljuks, a Sunni Turkic family, took  control of Baghdad and removed the Shia Buyids.  

They assumed the title of Sultan, which  will remain central in the Middle East  

for centuries to come. The Great Seljuks ruled  over a wide empire, but similar to the Buyids,  

they did not depose the Abbasid caliph, but  controlled him. In fact, the Seljuks defended  

the Abbasids against the Shia-Fatimid threat,  and became the agents of a Sunni flowering. 

This indicates the symbolic  centrality of the Abbasid Caliph,  

and his role as an exclusive source of  legitimacy in the Sunni-Muslim world.

In 1071, at the Battle of Manzikert, the  Seljuk Sultan defeated the Byzantine Emperor.  

Anatolia was opened to the Turkic tribes. In the following centuries, Greek-Christian  

Anatolia was transformed  into a Turkic-Muslim land. 

The most prominent political power of the region  was the Sultanate of Rum - a Seljuk branch.  

The bedrock of modern Turkey was formed.

In 1095, while the Islamic Middle East was  politically divided, the Crusades were launched  

under the direction of the Catholic Church.  Their declared goal: liberating holy places  

from the hands of Muslim infidels. European forces occupied Jerusalem,  

and established several states on  the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. 

Crusader presence in the Middle  East lasted for 200 years.  

During this period, Muslims tended to see  their new neighbors as representatives of  

an unadvanced civilization, with  a culture inferior to their own.

In the 12th century, Saladin, a member of  a Sunni Kurdish family, rose to prominence.  

He was a charismatic leader who eliminated the  Shia Fatimid rule, and founded the Ayyubid dynasty  

that ruled Egypt and Syria. Saladin fought the  Crusaders, defeated them in the Battle of Hattin  

in 1187, and freed Jerusalem from Christian  hands. The blow to the Crusaders was severe,  

but not decisive in the long term - they  would survive for another one-hundred years.

Meanwhile, the Seljuk state collapsed,  

allowing the formation of a new regional  power: the Turkic Khwarazmian Empire.  

Formerly a vassal of the Seljuks, the Khwarazmian  state controlled Iran and part of Central Asia.

The 13th century marks a watershed  in Islamic and world history. 

Far away in the steppes north of China,  Genghis Khan was proclaimed ruler of  

all Mongols - a group of nomadic  tribes with a shamanic religion,  

legendary as mounted archers,  like the Turks to their west.

Within a few decades, under Genghis Khan and  his descendants, the Mongol Empire expanded to  

become the largest contiguous land empire in human  history. It was seen as invincible and merciless.

In an ill-advised move, the Muslim rulers of the  Khwarazmian Empire executed Mongol merchants.  

The ensuing bloodbath brought  the end of the empire.  

By the mid-13th century, the Mongols ruled  Iran, the Caucasus, and most of Anatolia.

The Mongol ruler Hulagu Khan, Genghis Khan's  grandson, demanded that the Abbasid Caliph  

surrender. The Caliph refused to  submit to the non-Muslim hordes.  

In 1258, Hulagu besieged Baghdad, razed it  to the ground, and massacred its inhabitants.  

The great library of the city, known as the  "House of Wisdom," was no more - marking the  

end of the Islamic Golden Age. The Abbasid Caliph  was rolled in a carpet, and trampled by horses.  

500 years of Abbasid  leadership had come to an end.

Hulagu turned to Egypt. There,  the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin  

was overthrown and replaced by a  new power: the Mamluk Sultanate.  

The Mamluks were Turkic slave-soldiers who were  brought from the steppes, converted to Islam,  

and served as an important military force for  Muslim rulers beginning in the 9th century.

In 13th century Ayyubid Egypt,  this elite warrior class gained  

political power, and slaves became masters.

In 1260, at the Battle of Ain Jalut,  the Mamluks defeated the Mongols,  

unprecedentedly halting their advance.

The Mamluk sultan Baibars, who played an  important role in repelling the Mongols,  

also managed to crush the Crusaders,  paving the way for their final collapse.  

This double victory earned the Mamluks  the image of the defenders of Islam.  

It was further strengthened as Baibars  reestablished the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo,  

though it played a marginal role. The  Mamluks continued to rule for 250 years.

By the end of the 13th century, the Mongol  Empire splintered into local Mongol dynasties,  

led by the descendants of Genghis Khan. Some of  these dynasties, as well as many of the elites,  

converted to Islam and adopted Turkic dialects.  This was the case with the Ilkhanid dynasty,  

descendants of Hulagu, who ruled from Anatolia  to Iran. The Ilkhanids proved that the Mongols  

were not only brutal conquerors, but agents of  economic, cultural and intellectual prosperity.

The Ilkhanate collapsed in the 14th century, and  was replaced by an empire created by the cruel  

Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur. The Timurids proved  yet again that brutality and cultural flourishing  

are not mutually exclusive. The empire survived  in some form until the end of the 15th century.

At the same time, a new power  grew in the West. Around 1300,  

a man named Osman emerged as the leader of a  small Turkic-Muslim principality in Anatolia.  

Osman and his descendants  fought the Byzantine Empire  

and conquered territories in Anatolia and  the Balkans, creating the Ottoman Empire.

In 1453, it conquered Constantinople, in a move  that ended a thousand years of Byzantine rule,  

and is sometimes considered to  mark the end of the Middle Ages.  

Constantinople, later Istanbul,  became the new Turkish capital.

The Ottoman sultan Selim the Grim tripled  the size of the empire, making use of newly  

invented gunpowder technologies. In 1517, he captured Cairo  

and executed the last Mamluk sultan. Terminating the Abbasid Caliphate of Cairo,  

Selim declared himself Caliph -  the new leader of Sunni Islam.

The Ottoman Empire spread over vast  territories - in the Middle East,  

North Africa, and South-Eastern Europe.  

In the 16th century, two empires formed to  its east - the Shia Safavid Empire, which  

is considered the foundation of modern Iran, and  the Mughal Empire, that ruled India. These three  

Islamic powers, known as the "Gunpowder Empires",  were strong and stable in the early modern period.

The Ottoman Empire, the last  Caliphate in the history of Islam,  

survived for 600 years, and fell only in the  20th century, following the First World War.