Latent Learning & Cognitive Maps (Intro Psych Tutorial #68)

Summary

In this video, Michael Corayer explores the concept of latent learning, first researched by Edward Tolman. Corayer discusses two experiments involving rats in mazes. The first study shows that rats can learn without direct reinforcement, as demonstrated by a group that performed well once a reward was introduced, despite initially wandering without reward. The second experiment introduces the concept of a 'cognitive map,' where rats show an understanding of maze layout, not just learned behavior. These studies suggest that learning often occurs without immediate demonstration, challenging traditional behaviorist views.

Takeaways

• 🧠 Latent learning occurs without direct reinforcement or punishment, as shown through observational learning.
• 🐀 Edward Tolman researched cognitive processes in learning using rat maze experiments.
• 🏆 In the Tolman and Honzik study, the first group of rats received rewards for reaching the maze endpoint, improving over time.
• ❌ The second group, with no reward, wandered without showing improvement.
• ⚡ The third group of rats, which received no reward for 10 days and then began receiving it, showed a sudden performance spike, outperforming even the first group.
• 🔍 This sudden improvement in the third group demonstrated latent learning, where learning occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive.
• 📖 Latent learning also applies to humans, as we often learn without showing it until a test or challenge arises.
• 🗺️ In Tolman's second experiment, rats demonstrated the use of a 'cognitive map' when they successfully navigated a new maze layout to find food.
• 📍 Cognitive maps involve understanding the relationship between the starting point and the goal, rather than just following rote behavior.
• 🚻 Humans use cognitive maps in everyday life, like remembering the location of a bathroom in a restaurant without retracing exact steps.

Q & A

What is observational learning, as mentioned in the video?

Observational learning is learning that occurs by watching others. It does not require direct reinforcement or punishment, as demonstrated by the children observing adult behavior in the previous video.

What is latent learning, according to Edward Tolman?

Latent learning refers to learning that happens without reinforcement and isn't demonstrated until there is a reason to do so. It means that learning can occur without being immediately visible through behavior.

What did the first group of rats in Tolman and Honzik's study experience?

The first group of rats received a reward for reaching a certain point in the maze. They gradually made fewer errors over time as they learned the maze due to the reinforcement.

What was the key finding from the third group of rats in Tolman and Honzik's study?

The third group, which received no reward for the first 10 days but then began receiving rewards, performed even better than the first group after the rewards were introduced. This demonstrated that the rats had been learning the maze all along but had no reason to show it until they were given a reward.

How does Tolman's research challenge the behaviorist view of learning?

Tolman's research challenges the behaviorist view by showing that learning can occur without reinforcement. His studies suggest that cognitive processes, like forming internal maps or representations, play a role in learning, rather than just reinforced behavior changes.

What is a cognitive map, and how was it demonstrated in Tolman's second study?

A cognitive map is an internal mental representation of the environment. In Tolman's second study, rats demonstrated the use of a cognitive map by choosing the correct corridor to reach the food even when the previously learned path was blocked, showing they understood the maze's layout.

How does the example of finding a bathroom in a restaurant illustrate the concept of a cognitive map?

The example illustrates that humans, like rats, use cognitive maps to navigate environments. After being told the directions once, you form an internal representation of where the bathroom is relative to your current location, rather than following the same turn-by-turn instructions again.

Why did the second group of rats in Tolman and Honzik's study not perform as well as the first or third groups?

The second group did not receive any reward for navigating the maze, so they had no incentive to demonstrate learning. They wandered aimlessly because there was no reinforcement guiding their behavior.

What does Tolman's research suggest about the importance of reinforcement in learning?

Tolman's research suggests that while reinforcement can enhance performance and reveal learning, it is not always necessary for learning to occur. Learning can happen without immediate reinforcement and may remain latent until a reason to demonstrate it arises.

What implications does latent learning have for education and teaching methods?

Latent learning implies that students may absorb information without immediately demonstrating their understanding. This highlights the importance of creating opportunities for students to show what they have learned, rather than assuming learning hasn't occurred if there is no immediate performance.

Outlines

00:00

🧠 Understanding Latent Learning with Tolman's Maze Experiment

In this section, Michael Corayer introduces the concept of latent learning, where learning occurs without direct reinforcement, as demonstrated by Edward Tolman's experiments. Tolman and Charles Honzik's study involved three groups of rats navigating a maze over 17 days. Group 1 received rewards, improving gradually; Group 2 received no rewards and wandered aimlessly. Group 3 received no rewards for the first 10 days but started receiving them on the 11th day, suddenly outperforming the consistently rewarded group. This suggested the rats were learning all along, only demonstrating knowledge when rewarded, highlighting that learning can occur without immediate reinforcement. This challenges traditional behaviorist views, showing that learning isn’t always outwardly observable until there's a reason to demonstrate it.

05:08

📚 Latent Learning Beyond the Maze: Real-Life Applications

This paragraph extends the idea of latent learning to everyday experiences, such as learning in a classroom setting. It emphasizes that learning often occurs without immediate behavior changes, similar to how rats learned the maze without rewards. The analogy is drawn to students absorbing knowledge in lectures, which they later demonstrate during exams. This reinforces the concept that learning isn't always visible until there's a need to show it. Just as the rats learned the maze without immediate incentives, students learn in class without immediate assessments, proving that learning can be a cognitive process that unfolds over time.

10:08

🗺️ Cognitive Maps: Tolman’s Experiment with Ritchie and Kalish

In this part, the discussion shifts to another study by Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish in 1946, which explored the concept of cognitive maps. In a maze experiment, rats initially learned a straightforward route to a food reward. When the direct path was blocked, the rats chose new routes that still led to the food, demonstrating that they had a mental representation of the maze layout. This showed that rats were not merely following reinforced behaviors (like turning left or right) but understood the spatial relationship between their position and the food. This concept of cognitive mapping is then related to human experiences, such as navigating to a bathroom in a restaurant using a mental layout rather than memorized step-by-step directions. It highlights how latent learning involves forming internal cognitive maps rather than merely rote responses to reinforcement.

🔍 Cognitive Maps in Everyday Scenarios

This closing section further illustrates cognitive maps using the example of navigating a restaurant. When given directions, you form an overall sense of where the bathroom is rather than memorizing each turn. This cognitive map allows you to find the bathroom later, even from a different part of the restaurant, demonstrating latent learning and spatial understanding. This parallels Tolman’s findings with rats, emphasizing that cognitive mapping is not just about learning specific actions but understanding overall spatial relationships. This latent learning aspect shows how we apply learned knowledge flexibly in various contexts, proving the importance of internal mental representations in learning and behavior.

Keywords

💡Latent Learning

Latent learning refers to learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately demonstrated. In the video, this is shown through Tolman’s experiment where rats learned the layout of a maze without a reward, but only exhibited their knowledge once a reward was introduced. It highlights that learning can happen without observable changes in behavior.

💡Reinforcement

Reinforcement is the process by which a behavior is strengthened by a reward or consequence. In the video, it is demonstrated by the rats receiving rewards for reaching the end of a maze, reinforcing their ability to navigate the maze more efficiently over time. The concept shows how behaviorists view learning through direct stimulus and reward.

💡Cognitive Process

A cognitive process refers to the mental activities involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding. In the video, Tolman’s studies show that learning is not just a behaviorist process but also involves cognitive processes, as demonstrated by the rats forming a cognitive map of the maze even without immediate rewards.

💡Tolman’s Maze Experiments

Tolman’s maze experiments were studies conducted to demonstrate latent learning and cognitive mapping in rats. The video details two of these experiments, where rats learned the layout of mazes without reinforcement and later exhibited this knowledge when a reward was introduced, challenging traditional behaviorist views of learning.

💡Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a theory of learning which states that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning and reinforcement. The video contrasts this perspective with cognitive learning, showing that learning can occur without reinforcement, as in the case of the rats forming a cognitive map of the maze.

💡Cognitive Map

A cognitive map is an internal mental representation of an environment or spatial relationships. In the video, rats developed cognitive maps of the maze, allowing them to navigate successfully even when their usual path was blocked, indicating they understood the spatial layout rather than just memorizing turns.

💡Errors in Learning

Errors in learning refer to the mistakes or wrong turns made by the rats while navigating the maze. The video describes how the number of errors decreased as the rats became more familiar with the maze, illustrating how learning progresses and errors diminish through experience and reinforcement.

💡Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization is a behaviorist concept where a response to a specific stimulus is generalized to similar stimuli. In the video, this is discussed as a possible explanation for how rats might try similar behaviors, like turning left or right, in new maze configurations. However, the rats’ correct choice of the corridor showed more than simple stimulus generalization; they used cognitive maps.

💡Observational Learning

Observational learning is learning that occurs by watching others. Though not the focus of Tolman’s experiments, the video references earlier discussions on how children can learn behaviors by observing adults, similar to how latent learning occurs without direct reinforcement.

💡Mental Representation

Mental representation refers to the mental imagery or understanding that an individual holds about an object or event. In the context of the video, rats formed mental representations of the maze's layout (cognitive maps), allowing them to navigate the maze based on the overall structure rather than just memorized actions.

Highlights

Learning can occur without direct reinforcement or punishment, as shown by observational learning.

Children can learn behaviors simply by observing adults, without demonstrating it immediately.

Edward Tolman studied latent learning, which refers to learning that happens without reinforcement but is demonstrated when there's an incentive.

In the Tolman and Honzik study, three groups of rats were placed in a maze, and their behaviors were compared based on whether or not they received rewards.

Rats that received rewards from the start made fewer errors over time, showing reinforced learning.

Rats that never received rewards wandered without improving, following traditional behaviorist expectations.

The third group of rats, which received rewards only after the 10th day, showed sudden rapid improvement, performing even better than the first group.

This sudden improvement in the third group demonstrated that latent learning occurred, as the rats had learned the maze despite no initial reward.

Latent learning means that just because learning isn't immediately demonstrated, it doesn't mean it hasn’t occurred.

The idea of latent learning is applicable in everyday situations, such as students learning in class without showing immediate behavior change.

Tolman's second study with Ritchie and Kalish introduced the concept of a cognitive map, where rats learned not just turn-by-turn instructions but developed an internal sense of the maze's layout.

When the maze layout was changed, rats chose the correct corridor based on their cognitive map of the maze, not rote-reinforced behavior.

This cognitive map suggests that rats (and humans) can form internal mental representations of their environment and the location of goals.

The cognitive map concept is relatable to human experiences, such as remembering the location of a bathroom in a restaurant based on overall location rather than following turn-by-turn directions.

Tolman’s studies challenge strict behaviorist views, showing that learning involves more than just direct reinforcement and involves cognitive processes like mapping environments.

Transcripts

Hi, I'm Michael Corayer and this is Psych Exam Review.

In the previous video on observational learning we saw that learning could occur without any direct reinforcement or punishment.

The children could learn about behavior simply by observing the adults. This suggests that

there's some sort of cognitive process going on while the children are observing.

There's learning happening even though it's not being demonstrated yet. So this brings us to

this idea of latent learning and this was researched by a guy named Edward Tolman.

So I want to look at two studies that Tolman conducted that demonstrate this cognitive process of learning.

The first study that we'll look at was conducted by Tolman and Charles Honzik and what they did was

they had three groups of rats and they put these rats into a maze.

They ran the rats in this maze every day for 17 days.

So what were the three groups of rats that they had?

The first group

got a reward for getting to a certain point in the maze. They had sort of an end goal to get to.

The second group

didn't get a reward.

So as far as these rats were concerned there was no endpoint to the maze, they just wandered

around in the maze because there was no point where they got a reward.

The third group of rats was sort of a combination of these two. They didn't get a

reward for the first 10 days and starting on the 11th day they started getting a reward.

So the third group has no reward for the first 10 days

and then they started getting the reward on the 11th day. Ok, so

if we look at the behavior of these rats

what do we see? Here's the days

that they're performing in each maze and this is going to show the number of errors that they made, so how many wrong turns did they make

in the maze before they get to this endpoint?

OK, let's look at the first group.

The first group of rats is getting a reward, so initially they make lots of errors, but over time

they make fewer and fewer errors. They get better at doing the maze because they're being

reinforced to get to this particular point so they learn.

How about the second group?

The second group is not getting a reward, so so they don't really know what the end of the maze is. They just

kind of wander around, as I said, so they're just going to be wandering

the whole time.

This follows the very standard behaviorist explanation of how learning occurs. You

get reinforced for something and you get better at it; you learn to change your behavior.

That's essentially what we see here. But the interesting part comes with third group.

What happens with the third group?

Just like the others, when they first are put in the maze, they're just wandering around, and just like

the second group, they're just wandering around

but then after 10 days

they start learning. You might think that they would gradually decrease just like the first group.

But what Tolman and Honzik found was this group of rats suddenly start performing, by the end of the

study, even better than the group that was rewarded all along.

What does this mean? This demonstrates that thist third group of rats, throughout this 10 day process here, they were actually learning.

They just didn't have a reason to demonstrate that learning.

There was something going on that when suddenly you start putting a reward into the maze, they start getting to it very quickly. That

shows that they actually have been learning something about the maze all along.

This is this idea of latent learning.

Latent learning refers to

learning that occurs without reinforcement.

When the rats are just wandering around in this maze there with no reinforcement, they're actually still learning about the maze.

The reason that early behaviorists wouldn't think that they're learning is the rats didn't have any reason to demonstrate that. By this

idea we could say this second groups of rats here that got no reward, they're actually learning during those first 10 days too

but they never got the opportunity to show it. So the idea of latent learning is that

learning occurs without reinforcement but it's not demonstrated until there's a reason to do so.

Just because learning hasn't been demonstrated doesn't mean that hasn't occurred.

We actually operate on this assumption all the time when you think about, when you sit in school, you sit in class, you sit for a lecture or

something, we assume that you're learning something by sitting there, but there's no

observable change in your behavior.

We hope that the learning is occurring latently, that you're sitting there you actually are learning, you're just not going to demonstrate

that learning until the test day arrives or we give you some challenge and now you're able to show that you have actually

learned something from sitting in that lecture. But when you first were learning it there was no

incentive to demonstrate it.

That's quite similar to the idea of these rats here where they're learning about the maze but they have no reason to show you. They're not

going to need to rush to the end of the maze because they're no reward there. Then you start putting a reward there and suddenly they

demonstrate that they actually do know this maze pretty well.

Ok, I want to look at one other study by Tolman and this was conducted with Ritchie and Kalish in 1946.

What they did in this study was

they had a very simple maze that they put some rats in. So the maze had an entry point into this round room here

and then there was one exit

and then the corridor turned to the left and then it turned to the right

and then it turned to the right again

and then at the end of his long hallway

was the food reward.

So they had rats complete this very simple maze.

Here's our rat here, he's going to run in here, go straight through

turn left, turn right, turn right, and get to the food reward. Then after the rats had learned this

layout of this maze, the researchers changed it a bit.

What they did was, same entrance, same round room

but now instead of just one corridor, there were many different corridors

branching off in all directions.

The straight ahead version the rat had previously been taught was now blocked.

So the question is, which of these hallways will the rat run down?

One of the ones angling off to the right here actually went out to

the food.

So the food was actually in the same

general location that it was before. But now the rat's going to have to choose a new

route to get there. There were actually more of these corridors than I've drawn here.

I'll post a link to the original paper, you can see a diagram of what this actually looked like.

This is a very rough approximation. So the question is, what would rat do? The traditional behaviorist explanation would be, ok the rat

runs in, tries to go straight, that doesn't work. OK maybe stimulus generalization will occur, the rat will choose the most similar

behavior. Or they say maybe the first turn that was reinforced was turning left so maybe the rat will get here, can't go straight, it will turn left

it will try going this way. That's not what happened. What they found in this study was the rat

actually chose the correct corridor. This showed the idea of a cognitive map.

What the cognitive map refers to is the idea that the rat actually has a notion about where the food is in relation to the starting point.

The rat is not just learning, how do I get food, turn left, turn right, turn right and then

that's where food is. The rat is actually learning, ok, I'm here and food is over there somewhere so I should try to get over there

and if I suddently have a new path that goes that way then that's the one that I should choose. Instead of thinking

of behavior as simply being reinforced rote learning of turn left turn right.

So that's the idea of this cognitive map. This shows that the rat must have some internal mental representation of the rat's location and

the food's location in relation to the rat. That's what this study demonstrates, it shows it's not a strict behavioral process of

this turning left or turning right was reinforced. But rather that the rat has actually learned about the layout of this maze here and it knows

where the food is. This is true for humans as well. If you've ever gone to a restaurant, let's say you're waiting for a table at a restaurant

and you need to use the bathroom. So you ask someone "excuse me, where's the bathroom?". They tell you, "go down this hallway, turn left,

turn right and the bathroom is there". Let's imagine later on in the evening you're sitting at your table in a completely different part of the

restaurant and you need to use the bathroom again. You don't follow those same instructions, right? You don't say "OK how do I go to the

bathroom, I turned left, I turned right" because you know that's not going to work anymore. Instead you've formed a cognitive map, you

have an idea of where is the bathroom in relation to me. This learning has occurred latently, you didn't have a

reason to demonstrate this until later but it shows that you do have this cognitive map. You have an overall

understanding of location not a specific reinforcement of

the actual steps of the behavior.

I hope you found this helpful, if so, please like the video and subscribe to the channel for more. Thanks for watching!