Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

Summary

This Biology Essentials video explores the cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis, explaining how organisms develop from a single cell into trillions of cells. It highlights the role of meiosis in sex cell production and parthenogenesis in species like the female lizard. The video outlines the phases of the cell cycle, emphasizing mitosis for cell replacement and growth, and meiosis for gamete formation. It also discusses cell cycle regulation, including the critical role of cyclins and CDKs in controlling cell progression, ensuring the cell's readiness for division.

Takeaways

• 🐉 The whip-tailed lizard is an example of parthenogenesis, where a female lizard can reproduce asexually through mitosis, producing genetically identical offspring.
• 🔄 Meiosis is crucial for sexual reproduction, as it creates genetic diversity by producing haploid sex cells (sperm and egg) that combine during fertilization to form a new diploid cell.
• 🧬 A diploid cell, like a typical human cell, contains two complete sets of chromosomes (2n), with humans having 46 chromosomes in total.
• 📈 The cell cycle involves mitosis to replicate a cell, ensuring that the new cell is genetically identical to the original, which is essential for growth and repair in the body.
• 🌀 Meiosis consists of two rounds of cell division, resulting in four haploid cells, which are necessary for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity.
• 🌱 The cell cycle is controlled by cyclins, proteins that accumulate and trigger the cell to progress through different phases, acting like an hourglass clock.
• 🔬 Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are activated by cyclins, forming a complex that drives the cell through the cell cycle, particularly into mitosis.
• 🔄 The cell cycle has phases: G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation for division), and M (mitosis and cytokinesis), with most cells spending most of their life in interphase.
• 🔄 Mitosis results in two identical diploid cells, which can re-enter the cell cycle, while meiosis results in four haploid cells, contributing to sexual reproduction.
• 🌟 The process of mitosis and meiosis is essential for the development from a single fertilized egg to a complex multicellular organism with trillions of cells.

Q & A

What is the primary difference between mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis is a process that results in two identical daughter cells, each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell, while meiosis produces four non-identical haploid cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, which are used for sexual reproduction.

Why is meiosis important for genetic diversity?

Meiosis is important for genetic diversity because it includes a phase where homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, a process known as crossing over, which results in new combinations of genes in the gametes produced.

What is the significance of the term 'haploid' in the context of meiosis?

In the context of meiosis, 'haploid' refers to cells that have half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, which is typical for gametes (sperm and egg cells). This ensures that when fertilization occurs, the resulting zygote will have the correct diploid number of chromosomes.

How does the cell cycle contribute to the growth and repair of an organism?

The cell cycle, particularly mitosis, contributes to the growth and repair of an organism by continuously dividing cells to replace damaged or dead cells and to increase the number of cells during the growth of the organism.

What is the role of cyclins in controlling the cell cycle?

Cyclins are proteins that accumulate in a cell as it progresses through the cell cycle. They bind to cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) to form active complexes that drive the cell through different phases of the cell cycle, particularly into mitosis.

What is the function of the mitosis promoting factor (MPF) in the cell cycle?

The mitosis promoting factor (MPF) is a complex of cyclin and CDK that, when it reaches a critical concentration, triggers the onset of mitosis by initiating the breakdown of the nuclear envelope and the formation of the mitotic spindle.

Can you explain the process of parthenogenesis mentioned in the script?

Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an unfertilized egg develops into a new individual. In the context of the script, it is exemplified by the whiptail lizard, which can reproduce by mitosis, creating genetically identical offspring without the need for fertilization.

What are the stages of the cell cycle, and what happens during each stage?

The stages of the cell cycle include G1 phase (cell growth), S phase (DNA replication), G2 phase (preparation for division), and mitosis (nuclear division). After mitosis, cytokinesis occurs, which is the division of the cytoplasm and cellular components.

How does the cell cycle ensure that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information?

The cell cycle ensures that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information through the S phase, where DNA replication occurs, creating identical copies of each chromosome that are then distributed to the daughter cells during mitosis.

What is the purpose of the G0 phase in the cell cycle?

The G0 phase is a resting phase where cells can temporarily or permanently withdraw from the cell cycle. Cells in G0 do not divide and are in a state of quiescence, which is useful for cells like neurons and muscle cells that do not need to divide after they have fully developed.

Outlines

00:00

🐉 Introduction to Cell Cycle and Reproduction

Mr. Andersen introduces the topic of the cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis, explaining how organisms develop from a single cell to a complex body with trillions of cells. He uses the example of the female lizard, which reproduces through parthenogenesis, a form of asexual reproduction using mitosis to create genetically identical offspring. The video aims to provide a general understanding of mitosis and meiosis, their roles in cell division, and the control mechanisms of the cell cycle, rather than delving into the specifics of each phase.

05:02

🌱 Understanding the Cell Cycle and Its Phases

The video script explains the different phases of the cell cycle, including the G1, S, and G2 phases, which together form the Interphase. The G1 phase is characterized by cell growth, the S phase by DNA replication, and the G2 phase by further growth in preparation for cell division. The script also introduces the concept of the G0 phase, where cells like those in the central nervous system and muscle cells remain in a non-dividing state. The control of the cell cycle is likened to an hourglass, with cyclins acting as the 'sands' that accumulate and signal the cell to progress to the next phase. CDKs, or cyclin-dependent kinases, are proteins that, when activated by cyclins, drive the cell into mitosis and are responsible for actions like breaking the nucleus and forming the spindle fibers.

10:06

🔬 The Processes of Mitosis and Meiosis

The script differentiates between mitosis and meiosis, explaining that mitosis is used for replacing cells in the body and growing from a small to a large organism, resulting in two identical diploid cells. Meiosis, on the other hand, is the process of creating sex cells for reproduction, leading to four haploid cells from a single diploid cell. The video illustrates the process of DNA replication during the S phase, where a cell becomes 4n before undergoing mitosis or meiosis. In mitosis, the cell divides into two diploid cells, while in meiosis, it results in four haploid cells, which develop into sperm or egg cells. The script concludes by describing how these processes contribute to the formation of a zygote and the continuation of the cycle in the next generation.

Keywords

💡Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is the series of events that occur in a cell, leading to its division and duplication. It is central to the video's theme as it explains how cells in our body multiply and replace damaged cells. The video mentions that a cell goes through phases like G1, S, and G2 before entering mitosis, highlighting the cell cycle's significance in cellular reproduction.

💡Mitosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus. It is a key process in growth, development, and the replacement of damaged cells. The video script uses mitosis as an example of how cells duplicate their DNA and machinery before dividing, ensuring that each new cell is genetically identical to the original.

💡Meiosis

Meiosis is a special type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating sperm and egg cells for sexual reproduction. The video emphasizes meiosis's role in creating genetic diversity and contrasts it with mitosis, explaining that it results in haploid cells, which are essential for sexual reproduction.

💡Diploid

A diploid cell, denoted as 2n, contains two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent. The video uses the term to describe typical human cells, which have 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs. Diploid cells are the focus of the cell cycle's mitotic phase, where the goal is to create two identical diploid daughter cells.

💡Haploid

Haploid cells, denoted as n, contain a single set of chromosomes. The video explains that meiosis produces haploid cells, which are crucial for sexual reproduction. In humans, this means reducing the chromosome number from 46 to 23, as seen in sperm and egg cells.

💡Parthenogenesis

Parthenogenesis, also known as virgin birth, is a natural biological phenomenon where offspring develop from unfertilized eggs. The video uses the example of the female lizard to illustrate parthenogenesis, where mitosis is used to create genetically identical offspring, highlighting an alternative to sexual reproduction.

💡Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the process by which the cytoplasm of a cell is divided after the nucleus has divided during cell division. The video script mentions cytokinesis as the second part of cell division, following mitosis, and is essential for completing the cell cycle and forming two separate cells.

💡Interphase

Interphase is the phase of the cell cycle during which the cell carries out its normal functions before dividing. The video script describes Interphase as consisting of G1, S, and G2 phases, where the cell grows, duplicates its DNA, and prepares for division, making up the majority of a cell's life cycle.

💡Cyclins

Cyclins are proteins that regulate the progression of a cell through the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs). The video script explains that cyclins accumulate in the cell and trigger the cell to advance to the next phase of the cell cycle, acting like the sands of an hourglass.

💡CDK (Cyclin-Dependent Kinase)

CDKs are enzymes that, in conjunction with cyclins, drive the cell cycle forward. The video script describes how CDKs, once bound to cyclins, form an activated complex that can initiate processes like nuclear division and spindle formation, which are critical for mitosis.

💡MPF (Mitosis Promoting Factor)

MPF, or mitosis promoting factor, is a complex of cyclin and CDK that triggers the onset of mitosis. The video script uses MPF as an example of how a specific type of CDK can build up in the cell and then act on the cell to initiate mitosis, illustrating the regulatory mechanisms of the cell cycle.

Highlights

Introduction to the cell cycle, mitosis, and meiosis, explaining how cells multiply and differentiate in the body.

Discussion on parthenogenesis in whiptail lizards, a form of reproduction without males.

Explanation of the importance of meiosis in creating genetic diversity through the formation of sex cells.

Description of a diploid cell and its significance in human biology, with 2n representing 46 chromosomes.

Overview of the cell cycle's purpose in mitosis, aiming to replicate a cell and maintain cellular continuity.

Mention of the two loops in cellular reproduction: the mitosis loop for body cells and the meiosis loop for gametes.

Explanation of how cyclin and mitosis promoting factor (MPF) control the cell cycle.

Visualization of cell division, highlighting the process from one cell to two identical cells.

Detailed breakdown of the cell cycle's phases: G1, S, G2, and the significance of each.

Introduction of the concept of G0 phase, where cells do not divide, such as in muscle cells.

Discussion on the role of cyclins as regulatory proteins that accumulate to trigger cell cycle progression.

Explanation of CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases) and their role in cell cycle regulation.

Illustration of how CDKs and cyclins interact to form an activated complex that drives cell cycle progression.

Description of the cell cycle's decision-making process, likened to an hourglass clock mechanism.

Overview of the cell cycle's outcome in mitosis, resulting in two identical diploid cells.

Explanation of the process of meiosis, resulting in four haploid cells, which are essential for sexual reproduction.

Summary of the cell cycle's role in growth, repair, and reproduction, and how it leads to the formation of a new generation.

Transcripts

Hi. It's Mr. Andersen and welcome to Biology Essentials video 28. This is on

the cell cycle, mitosis and meiosis. In other words how we go from one cell to all the cells,

the trillions of cells inside our body. Meiosis is important because that's how we make sex

cells. Now let me digress a little bit. This is a whipped tail lizard from the desert southwest

and what's interesting about this is that it's a female lizard and when it wants to

make more lizards it will simply use mitosis to make an exact copy of a cell inside its

body. It's called parthenogenesis or virgin birth and it will make a brand new, a number

of baby lizards and they're all females. So they don't have males. It's rare to not have

males. It's rare to not have meiosis and the reason why is that all the whipped tail lizards

are genetically the same. But it works. And if you live in a fairly stable environment

it tends to work. Now we're not going to go into the specifics of mitosis and meiosis.

You can look, I've got videos on each of those that talks about the different phases. What

I want to talk about this is in general what do mitosis and meiosis do and how does the

cell cycle work and how is it controlled. And so a diploid cell is going to be a typical

human cell, or a typical cell inside an organism. It's going to be 2n and what that means is

it has 2 complete sets of chromosomes. So for example in humans 2n=46. That means we

have 23 pair of chromosomes. And so the goal of the cell cycle in mitosis is to make a

copy of that cell in other words to make a diploid cell. That diploid cell can enter

into the cell cycle again, make more cells and more cells and more cells. And so the

way that we make new cells in our body or replace cells that are damaged is mitosis.

In meiosis we're going to take a normal diploid cell and we're actually going to make a haploid

cell, we're going to make sperm and egg. So in humans n now equals 23. Now if we were

to just stop there, we wouldn't have diploid cells anymore, but fertilization where egg

meets sperm is going to combine those two cells to make a diploid cell and now that

diploid cell can enter into the cell cycle again. And so we've got kind of two loops.

We've got the mitosis loop and the meiosis loop. Mitosis is used to make all the cells

in our body, meiosis just makes gametes, or sex cells. I also in this video want to talk

about how we control the creation of diploid cells. So it may be better to come from here

and how we use cyclin, an example of that would be mitosis promoting factor (MPF) to

control the cell cycle in where it is and where it's headed next. Now if you're talking

about cell cycle the best place to watch, or start is with videos of actually cells

dividing. And so this is a cell undergoing division. So we start with one cell and it

makes an exact copy of itself. Now when you're watching it, let me go back a second, on these

first two videos what you don't see is everything that actually happens before the cell makes

a copy of itself. In other words before the cell is actually able to divide, it has to

duplicate all of the DNA and all of the machinery of the cell. This last one we're looking actually

inside the cell itself. And so the cell division actually has two parts to it. Part one is

going to be the division of the nucleus, and we call that in general mitosis. And then

after we've divided the nucleus you'll see the chromosomes actually separate here. Then

we actually have the division of the rest of it and that's called cytokinesis. Cytokinesis

is the break apart of all of the other parts of the cell, so the machinery of the cell,

the mitochondria, cytoplasm, things like that. And so let me see if I can start that up.

So first of all, there we go, first we have the division of the nucleus. You can see the

chromosomes pulling apart and then you have cytokinesis or the division of the cell itself.

And so all mitosis is is one cell forming two cells. And those two cells are identical

to that first cell. And that's how we go from that first fertilized egg inside us to the

trillion of cells we have inside an adult body. So when you're replacing cells in your

body you're doing it through mitosis. So let's look at the cell cycle. And so what happens

is you'll have a cell enter into this. So a cell's going to look like this. It's going

to enter into the cell cycle as one cell. Let me make a little better arrow. And then

it's eventually going to exit out as two cells, each of those cells remember could go back

into the cell cycle and so this is how we make all the cells in our body. Now I've heard

that a lot of the dust in a room actually are dead skin cells. And this is what skin

looks like. So skin is going to be creating new cells. They are going to migrate up to

the surface and then we're eventually going to lose skin cells at the top. But we keep

replacing those cells and to do that we use the cell cycle. So let's look at the parts

of the cell cycle. If we start first with that cell entering in, the first thing it'll

do is it'll actually enter into the G1phase. G1 phase the cell is actually going to grow.

It's going to get bigger and bigger and bigger and bigger. We then enter into the S phase.

During the S phase, we're going to actually, using DNA replication, we're going to copy

all of the DNA inside a cell. It then goes into the G2 or the growth 2 phase where it

continues to grow and gets ready for division of the actual cell. And so G1, S and G2 are

all part of what's called Interphase. And if you look at a cell, it's generally in interphase.

It's growing, it's copying its DNA, it's growing or maybe it's just working, it's doing what

a normal cell does. And so most of the life of a cell is in interphase. It's in these

three, G1, S and G2 and the actual copying of the nucleus and copying of the cell, this

mitotic phase is actually going to be really, really small. If it never divides again, it'll

actually stall out in something called the G0 phase. And so we've got cells inside our

body, you're heard of this maybe, cells of the central nervous system, muscle cells for

example, that never copy themselves during your whole life time. They're in what's called

the G0 phase or they're just waiting. And they're not going to make divisions. And so

how does a cell know when it's time to divide? And when it should go on and when it shouldn't?

The best analogy I can think of is it works kind of like an hour glass clock. And so there

are little proteins inside a cell and as those proteins accumulate throughout the life of

the cell eventually you get a critical number of these proteins at the bottom, and once

we have enough of those then it actually tells the cell to advance to the next stage. And

those proteins are called cyclins. And so let's look at what cyclins look like. A cyclin,

I'll represent it here, it's simply a protein. But if we look here at the G1 phase, the S

phase, the G2 phase and mitosis there's a set of cyclins or a set of these different

types of proteins and what they're going to do is they're going to build up. And so cyclin

A and B are ones that I'm really familiar with. Cyclin A will actually build up during

the S phase and then it'll drop off right as the cell divides, as it goes into this

mitotic phase. And so cyclins will actually accumulate and so those are like the sands

through an hourglass. They're going to get more and more and more and more cyclins as

a cell goes through the cell cycle. Now the other chemical that I want to talk about is

something called CDK. CDK is simply a cyclin dependent kinase and a kinase is simply going

to be a chemical that can speed up actions within a cell. And so CDKs are found in all

living organisms. And you can actually take CDKs from a yeast and put them in our cells

and they work just as fine. So they show homology through evolution. And so cyclin dependent

kinase, if you look at their name, are simply dependent upon cyclin. And so I made a little

animation of how that works. And so a typical cell in your body is going to have a bunch

of CDKs in it or cyclin dependent kinases and so we could say this is like right here.

But throughout the life of the cell, the cell is going to start building up and accumulating

larger amounts of cyclin. So the amount of cyclin is going to get larger and larger and

larger. So eventually what happens is the cyclin is going to fit into the cyclin dependent

kinases. Now we have an activated CDK cyclin complex. What does that mean? We have something,

a protein, that's able to do things. So now you can think of we've like mustered this

army and now the army is ready to do something. And so what does it do? Well, we're right

here, so we're just about to enter into the M phase, so we're just about to do mitosis

and so what these cyclin dependent kinases do is they act on the cell itself. A specific

type of CDK is called the mitosis promoting factor or MPF and what that does is when it

builds up enough of these cyclin dependent kinases, they're actually going to work on

the cell. So one thing they'll do is they'll actually break apart the nucleus. So we're

able to start dividing that cell. Another thing that CDKs will do is they'll actually

work on the microtubules that build this spindle. And so all of these together will work on

pushing that cell into the mitotic phase or into this next step of the cell cycle. The

neat thing about each of these is that after they've actually done that they'll actually

gobble themselves up. They'll disappear and then the whole cycle begins over again. Okay.

So if we kind of talk big picture about what happens in the cell cycle, a typical cell

right here is going to be, let's say this is a typical cell, a typical cell right here

is actually going to be 2n, it's diploid. You have one chromosome from mom, one chromosome

from dad. So in this case it's going to be 2n=2. It's then going to duplicate itself.

So during the S phase it's going to make copies of itself and so at this point right here

we'd actually have a 4n cell. It's made copies of that. And at this point we can either take

the path of mitosis or the path of meiosis. And so in the path of mitosis, that'll simply

split in half and now we'll have two 2n cells. And if you look at these two 2n cells they're

exactly the same as that first cell. So this is what's happening to the chromosomes. If

we look at that 4n cell as it goes into meiosis it'll actually line up. It will split in half

and then it will split in half again. And so what you have is actually n cells. Those

are called haploid cells and we have four of those in meiosis. And so the cell cycle

will take a diploid cell make two diploid cells in mitosis or make four haploid cells

in meiosis. That got a little messy so let's look at it in a little more detail. So mitosis

is how we replace cells in the body. Cells that are broken, cells that are broken down,

cells that we need to replace, we do that through mitosis. Or when we want to grow how

do we go from a very small organism to a very large organism? It's just making more cells.

And so this would be a real, to make it simple, we're going to start with a simple cell. This

is going to be a 2n, it's diploid, but 2n=2. So this would be that first parent cell. It

will then duplicate all of the DNA. So now we have this characteristic shape. It has

two sides to it and this side and that side are copies. That's what happened during the

S phase. They'll then meet in the middle. They'll divide in half, so this would be our

mitosis phase and now we have two diploid cells. And if you look at those cells, they're

exactly the same as the original cell. And each of those are 2n=2. So that's mitosis.

What happens to these 2n cells. Well, they can enter into the cell cycle again and it

goes over and over and over again. In meiosis what happens is a little more detailed. Remember

meiosis only deals with making sex cells in reproduction. And so in this case to make

it, to show you meiosis I had to increase the number of cells, or chromosomes. In this

case 2n=4. In other words we have two chromosomes from mom, two chromosomes from dad. So they'll

copy themselves, so now we actually have a 4n cell at this point, but since we're doing

meiosis, this is where actually crossing over occurs. And so parts of this chromosome will

swap places with this chromosome and vice versa. What that gives us is variability in

all of the sperm and the egg. They'll divide in half. Now we have 2n cells and then we'll

eventually have n cells equals 2. And so we started with 2n=4 and now we have n=2. Each

of these four things in a male become a sperm and in a female one of them will become an

egg and the other ones will actually form what are called polar bodies.

And so what do we get after meiosis? Well we get sperm and we get egg. And we can then

go from these original n=2 to a 2n=4 zygote. And so now we're back to a diploid cell and

that diploid cell can enter into the cell cycle. This is a zygote to make more cells

and eventually makes sex cells to make the next generation. So that's cell cycle, mitosis,

meiosis and I hope that's helpful.