How do Children Learn?

Summary

This podcast explores the evolution of learning theories from ancient alchemists' quest for the philosopher's stone to modern psychology's insights. It discusses behaviorism, constructivism, and the dialogic turn in education, emphasizing the active role of learners in constructing knowledge. The journey through learning theories highlights the complexity and context-dependence of effective educational practices.

Takeaways

• 🧪 The script discusses the historical pursuit of the philosopher's stone by alchemists as a metaphor for educators' quest for the transformative element in learning.
• 🌟 It highlights that learning theories are like the mythical philosopher's stone, suggesting that no single theory can fully encapsulate the complexity of learning.
• 📚 The script outlines the evolution of learning theories from ancient Greek philosophers to the modern era, emphasizing the historical and social influences on these theories.
• 🧠 Behaviorism is presented as an early psychological approach to learning, focusing on observable behaviors and the process of conditioning through stimulus-response associations.
• 🤖 Albert Bandura expanded on behaviorism by introducing social learning theory, which includes learning through observation, imitation, and reinforcement from others' experiences.
• 🏗️ Constructivism is introduced as a contrasting perspective to behaviorism, emphasizing internal cognitive processes where learners actively construct knowledge based on their experiences.
• 🌱 Jean Piaget's work is highlighted, focusing on the development of cognitive schemas and the importance of disequilibrium in learning, which drives the refinement of mental models.
• 🌐 Lev Vygotsky's contribution is discussed, emphasizing the social and cultural aspects of learning, particularly the zone of proximal development and the role of language in internalizing culturally specific ways of thinking.
• 🤝 The dialogic turn in learning theory is mentioned, focusing on the importance of the quality of talk in classrooms and the value of open-ended, exploratory dialogue in learning.
• 👥 Jerome Bruner's ideas on discovery learning are noted, where learners are encouraged to actively engage with raw stimuli to discover connections between ideas themselves, with the teacher acting as a facilitator.
• 🌟 The script concludes by reminding us that learning theories, like the philosopher's stone, are not about finding a single definitive answer but rather generating insights and effective educational practices.

Q & A

What was the primary goal of the Alchemists mentioned in the script?

The Alchemists aimed to find a hypothetical ingredient known as the philosopher's stone, which they believed could turn base metals like lead into valuable gold and silver.

What did the Alchemists' 700-year search ultimately contribute to the establishment of?

The Alchemists' search contributed to the establishment of the principles and working practices of modern chemistry.

What is the 'philosopher's stone' in the context of education?

In education, the 'philosopher's stone' refers to the transformative ingredient that educators seek to facilitate learning and conceptual change in students' minds.

What are the two key triggers for thought suggested by the historical context of learning theory?

The two key triggers for thought are: 1) Learning is often a contested process shaped by outside demands and expectations, and 2) Learning is historically specific, with what counts as appropriate being shaped by broader social and economic conditions.

What is the fundamental principle of behaviorism in learning theory?

The fundamental principle of behaviorism is that all learning is a process of repeated association between stimuli, behaviors, and outcomes, known as conditioning.

Who are two well-known figures associated with behaviorism, and what do they suggest about learning?

Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner are two well-known figures associated with behaviorism. They suggest that learning is achieved through the manipulation of stimuli, behaviors, and outcomes, with an emphasis on repetition, positive reinforcement, and punishment.

What is the core principle of constructivism in learning theory?

The core principle of constructivism is that learning is a fundamentally internal process, where an active individual makes sense of their environment and experience by constructing new understandings and integrating them into their existing schemas.

What is the concept of 'schema' in constructivist learning theory?

Schema, in constructivist learning theory, refers to cognitive maps or frameworks that individuals use to make sense of their world. The refinement of these schemas is seen as the fundamental principle of learning.

What are the two key ideas associated with Jean Piaget's work on learning?

Jean Piaget's two key ideas on learning are: 1) Learning occurs when the learner is in a state of disequilibrium, prompting them to revise and restructure their schemas to incorporate new information, and 2) Learning is governed by biologically determined stages of development, which affect the quality of thinking and the capacity to transform information.

How does Lev Vygotsky's work differ from Piaget's in terms of the basis for learning progression?

While Piaget sees a biological basis for learning progression, Vygotsky focuses on culture and social experience. Vygotsky suggests that an individual's learning potential is greatly enhanced through collaboration and interaction with others, a concept he calls the 'zone of proximal development'.

What is the significance of language in Vygotsky's perspective on learning?

In Vygotsky's perspective, language is central to learning as it is not just a tool for conveying content but also brings with it the cultural tools for thinking. The internalization of language is a process of internalizing culturally specific ways of thinking, which is essential for learning.

What is the concept of 'dialogic talk' in education, and how does it differ from traditional classroom discourse?

Dialogic talk in education is an open-ended conversation where the process of argumentation is more important than the product. It differs from traditional classroom discourse by encouraging collaborative discussions without a focus on a single correct answer, promoting deeper understanding and critical thinking.

Outlines

00:00

🧙‍♂️ The Alchemists of Learning: Philosophical Foundations

This paragraph introduces the podcast's theme by drawing a parallel between historical alchemists and modern educators in their quest for knowledge. It discusses the alchemists' pursuit of the philosopher's stone, a mythical substance to transmute base metals into gold, as a metaphor for educators seeking transformative learning experiences. The paragraph sets the stage for a deeper exploration of learning theories, emphasizing the complexity and multifaceted nature of learning. It also touches on the historical evolution of learning concepts from Greek philosophers to the Middle Ages, highlighting the influence of social and economic conditions on educational practices.

05:02

🔬 The Behaviorist Approach: Conditioning and Reinforcement

This section delves into the behaviorist perspective on learning, which focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental stimuli that condition them. It mentions the work of Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, who believed that learning occurs through repeated associations between stimuli and responses, a process known as conditioning. The behaviorist approach advocates for the use of repetition, positive reinforcement, and occasionally punishment to shape behavior. The paragraph also discusses Albert Bandura's social learning theory, which includes learning through observation and imitation. The behaviorist model's influence on educational practice is acknowledged, but it also faced criticism for ignoring internal psychological processes.

10:04

🏗️ Constructivism: Building Understanding from Within

The third paragraph introduces constructivism, an alternative learning theory that emphasizes the learner's internal processes and active role in making sense of their environment. It discusses the concept of schemas, or cognitive maps, that help individuals understand and categorize the world. Constructivists, such as Jean Piaget, believe that learning involves the refinement of these schemas through a state of disequilibrium, where the learner's existing mental models are challenged by new experiences. The paragraph also highlights the importance of the learner's developmental stages and the role of the teacher in facilitating learning by building on what the learner already knows.

15:06

🌐 Vygotsky's Social Constructivism: Learning Through Interaction

This section explores Lev Vygotsky's social constructivist theory, which integrates cultural and social experiences into the learning process. Vygotsky introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development, the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. He emphasized the importance of scaffolding and the role of language in learning, not just as a communication tool but as a means of internalizing cultural ways of thinking. The paragraph also discusses the impact of Vygotsky's ideas on pedagogy, promoting communal activities, mixed-ability work, and increased interaction in the classroom.

20:08

🗣️ The Dialogic Turn: Learning Through Collaborative Conversation

The final paragraph examines the dialogic turn in learning theory, which focuses on the quality and nature of talk in educational settings. It discusses the work of Robin Alexander and Neil Mercer, who advocate for dialogic teaching that encourages open-ended conversations and collaborative discussions. This approach contrasts with traditional teaching methods that prioritize finding the 'correct' answer. The dialogic turn promotes a deeper understanding through exploratory talk, where the process of argumentation is valued over the outcome. The paragraph concludes by reflecting on the journey through learning theories, emphasizing the importance of critically engaging with these theories to gain insight into effective educational practices.

Keywords

💡Alchemists

Alchemists were early scientists who sought to transform base metals into gold and silver through the philosopher's stone, a mythical substance. In the video, they symbolize the quest for understanding learning, paralleling their search for transformation with educators' pursuit of the essence of learning. The script mentions them as 'a group of early scientists called the Alchemists' who were 'unified by a single Noble aim.'

💡Philosopher's Stone

The philosopher's stone represents the ultimate goal of the alchemists, a substance that could turn base metals into gold. In the context of the video, it is used metaphorically to describe the elusive 'magical transformative ingredient' that educators seek to catalyze learning. The script introduces the concept with 'their goal became known as the philosopher's stone.'

💡Learning Theories

Learning theories are frameworks that attempt to explain how learning occurs. The video discusses various theories such as behaviorism and constructivism, which offer different perspectives on the learning process. The script refers to them as 'the VAR theories of learning' that 'each provide a set of ideas and propositions about the key ingredients and combinations which transform learning.'

💡Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a learning theory that focuses on observable behaviors and their modification through conditioning. It is mentioned in the script as 'the work of the behaviorists' which is 'Unified by a single principle that all learning is a process of repeated association between stimuli behaviors, and outcomes.'

💡Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory that emphasizes the active role of the learner in constructing knowledge. The script explains it as 'an approach which attended to these aspects' where 'learning was a fundamentally internal process, governed by an active individual making sense of their environment and experience.'

💡Schema

Schema refers to cognitive structures that help individuals organize and interpret information. In the video, it is central to constructivism, representing the mental models that are refined through learning. The script describes it as 'cognitive maps by which we make sense of our world' and 'the fundamental principle of learning.'

💡Zone of Proximal Development

The zone of proximal development is a concept from Vygotsky's work, referring to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. The script explains it as 'the difference between individual and potential learning' and 'the zone of proximal development.'

💡Disequilibrium

Disequilibrium, in the context of learning, is a state where learners cannot understand the world with their current knowledge, prompting them to revise and restructure their schemas. The script uses the term to describe 'a state by which they cannot fully understand the outside world using their existing mental maps.'

💡Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a teaching approach where support is gradually removed as learners become more competent. It is discussed in the script as a key feature of interaction to promote learning, 'by which one individual offers cognitive support to another in reaching a particular objective.'

💡Dialogic Teaching

Dialogic teaching is an educational approach that encourages open-ended conversations and collaborative discussions. The script describes it as 'an open-ended conversation in which the process of argumentation is more important than the product of an argument.'

Highlights

The podcast explores the history and theories of learning, likening the quest for understanding learning to the search for the mythical philosopher's stone.

Early scientists known as Alchemists sought an ingredient to turn base metals into gold, symbolizing the transformative power of learning.

The principles and practices of modern chemistry emerged from the unsuccessful search for the philosopher's stone.

Education's 'philosopher's stone' is the transformative ingredient of learning, focusing on conceptual rather than material change.

Learning theories are compared to artifacts of the quest for understanding the key to effective learning.

The complexity and individuality of learning suggest that a single theory describing it may not exist.

Learning theories have evolved from Greek philosophy, emphasizing systematic thought and reflection.

The Middle Ages saw learning shaped by the church, focusing on rote recall and repetition of religious texts.

The Renaissance and Enlightenment periods placed new emphasis on discovery and active learning.

The Industrial Revolution led to a renewed interest in learning for functional outcomes and capacities.

Behaviorism in psychology focused on observable behaviors and the process of conditioning through repeated association.

Albert Bandura introduced a social context to learning, emphasizing observation and imitation of others.

Constructivism emerged as an alternative to behaviorism, focusing on internal processes and the active construction of understanding.

Jean Piaget's work on learning emphasizes the importance of disequilibrium and the refinement of cognitive schemas.

Piaget's theory of developmental stages suggests that learning is governed by biological and cognitive capacities.

David Ausubel's model of learning starts with what students already know, emphasizing the connection between new and old understandings.

Jerome Bruner's discovery learning model encourages students to actively engage with raw stimuli to discover connections between ideas.

L.S. Vygotsky's social constructivism highlights the importance of collaboration and the zone of proximal development in learning.

Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the role of language in learning, as a tool for conveying content and organizing thought.

Dialogic teaching, influenced by Vygotsky, focuses on open-ended conversations and the process of argumentation in learning.

The dialogic turn in education emphasizes the importance of the quality and nature of talk in classrooms for learning.

The podcast concludes by reflecting on the journey through learning theories, acknowledging the lack of a definitive theory and the importance of context.

Transcripts

this podcast was produced by Mark P of

Manchester Metropolitan University

please feel free to use it for

non-commercial purposes without seeking

further permissions under the sherik

Clause of the Creative Commons

license once upon a time there lived a

group of early scientists called the

Alchemists learned intellectuals based

in the Arabic Peninsula the Indian

subcontinent and across Western Europe

they were unified by a single Noble aim

the hunt for a mysterious hypothetical

ingredient which could turn base Metals

such as lead into valuable gold and

silver the 700-year search caught the

popular imagination where their goal

became known as the philosopher stone

Beyond Legends of discoveries obscured

or suppressed by secret societies no

such artifact was ever produced but

beyond the Legends something very real

was achieved in the establishment of the

principles and working practices of

modern chemistry and all of the

contributions it was eventually to

produce

we in education have our own philosopher

stone our own single unifying Quest we

too seek that magical transformative

ingredient though our substance isn't

metal or Alloys but minds and the

transformation that we seek is not a

material one but conceptual it's that

thing that we call

learning the VAR theories of learning

exist as artifacts of this surge they

each provide a set of ideas and

propositions about the key ingredients

and combinations which transform

learning in this podcast I set out to

introduce you to a sample of these

theories and provide a rudimentary

grounding in some key perspectives on

learning in exploring them though we

should remember that they like the

Alchemists seek something vaguely

mythical that single idea which

describes and unlocks learning in

reality probably doesn't exist rather

learning is something complex

individualistic and

multifaceted but this is not to say that

our Quest is entirely without

purpose each perspective has in its own

way exposed some reality around the

processes by which learning sometimes

occurs and thus brings with it useful

implications for the

educator the search for the true meaning

of learning is

ageold in Western culture for instance

it's notable in the work of the Greek

philosophers where it was caught up in

broader discourse on the nature of

knowledge and

understanding Plato for instance

established a principle that learning

occurred within the individual through

their systematic and reasoned thought

and

reflection this notion was taken up by

Socrates who injected the need to go

beyond singular int introspection and

into a dialogue whereby another person

interrogated and probed one's

reasoning elsewhere Aristotle laid the

foundations of empiricism with a notion

that understanding came not from

introspection but from systematic

observation of the outside world in

their own ways thinkers such as these

established conventions not just on the

nature of subjects but of knowledge

generation and hence the nature of

learning through the early in Middle

Ages Notions of what learning was were

constituted by the governing interests

invested in education in their intent to

build the infrastructure of empire for

instance the Romans established most

strongly the tradition of apprenticeship

of learning that was constituted through

the close observation of activity by a

more masterly other as the church gained

dominance through the Middle Ages

education became about the dissemination

and maintenance of key dogmas and this

shaped constructs of learning towards a

sense of rote recall and repetition of

core

texts this was challenged through the

Renaissance and Enlightenment where

inspired by a new spirit of scientific

inquiry learning received a new emphasis

on Discovery and an active process of

generating understanding rather than

just receiving

it in turn this open-endedness was

curtailed through the technical demands

of the Industrial Revolution which

brought with it A Renewed interest in

learning governed by functional outcomes

and

capacities there is then an age-old

debate over the nature of learning much

of which predates the modern era of

universal schooling the treatment

offered so far offers two key triggers

for Thought firstly it demonstrates that

learning is often a contested process

with perceptions of its very nature

shaped by outside demands and

expectations secondly it suggests that

learning is historically specific what

counts as appropriate is shaped by

broader social and economic conditions a

mindfulness of these two facets is

perhaps sensible in our continued

exploration of learning theory here it

reminds us that our particular

philosopher stone is not one thing

rather it means different things to

different people in different times and

contexts the time and context we occupy

now is one dominated by psychology and

in the remainder of this podcast we will

will focus specifically on its

contribution we should though be mindful

that there are other aspects of our

current context which shape what we see

as

learning we live amongst an era of Rapid

globalization amongst a particular

economic climate and against a

neoliberal market driven political

climate these as much as any so-called

pure theory of learning might shape what

is seen as legitimate and beneficial

activity in education though here we

will allow these processes to take a

background to the more direct

theoretical

Expressions the earliest attempts by

psychologists to explain learning did so

by applying very strict scientific

principles as such they set out to

establish controlled experiments often

involving animals placed in mazes and

other apparatus to measure the extent

and effects of

experience in applying this scientific

method these theories focused only on

observable evidence and th rejected any

form of attempt to speculate about the

inner workings of the mind their

understanding of learning therefore

focused on the behaviors which their

subjects exhibited as evidence of

learning and the conditions and

responses which made these behaviors

more likely to reoccur as such they

became known as the

behaviorists the work of the

behaviorists of whom Ivan Pavlov and bf

skin are perhaps most well known is

Unified by a single principle that all

learning is a process of repeated

association between stimuli behaviors

and outcomes a process called

conditioning the approach suggests that

by carefully and scientifically

manipulating these three components we

are effectively able to program

individuals into particular patterns of

behavior with increasing

predictability it is this process which

they argue we know as learning whether

this is a dog learning a new trick

through the careful application of

Rewards or a class learning a new French

verb through chanting and

feedback the principles established by

behaviorists suggest that repetition is

crucial to learning as is the careful

application of positive reinforcement

and to a lesser extent

punishment early versions of the

approach dealt with the individual in

isolation though Albert banur injected a

social context to the approach He

suggests that learning occurs not just

through direct experience but also

through the observation of others

through the imitation of Behavioral

models and by seeing others rewarded and

punished

the behavioral perspective offered

perhaps the first coherent model of

learning and its influence remains in

educational practice but the 1960s saw a

growing discontent with its

principles in part these objections were

political and stemmed from the socially

liberal trends of the time conditioning

and shaping Behavior Jarred as an

oppressive mechanism of social control

equally objections were

theoretical detract suggested that in

ignoring the internal workings of the

individual's psychology the behaviorists

were ignoring a fundamental aspect of

what learning

is a group of alternative theorists

therefore set out to develop an approach

which attended to these aspects it was

based on the principle that learning was

a fundamentally internal process

governed by an active individual making

sense of their environment and

experience this is an approach which

contrasts strongly with the model of a

passive and programmable self as spoused

by the

behaviorists this individual the New

Perspective maintained was always an

active learner engaged not in the

reception of knowledge but in

constructing new understandings by

integrating experience into their

existing

psychologies on the basis of this

principle the approach became known as

constructivism at the core of

constructivism is the notion of schema

cognitive maps by which we make sense of

our world it is the refinement of these

Maps which are often represented as

hierarchical trees which constructivist

see as the fundamental principle of

learning when we are born we begin to

learn to make distinctions initially

between self and not self and then

between objects and people between

family and stranger and so on these

divisions become increasingly complex as

our existing schemas take us further and

allow us to receive experience in more

sophisticated ways a numerical schema

for instance allow was to distinguish

Notions of order of odd and even primes

and non primes and

onwards the exact mechanisms by which

schemer are refined has become the

business of the constructivist school at

the center of which is Jean

Pi Pi's work is dealt with in depth

elsewhere but for now it's worth

paraphrasing two of his key

ideas the first aspect of PJ's work

focuses on the preconditions for

learning he argues that no refinement of

schema will ever happen unless the

learner finds themselves in a state of

disequilibrium by this he means a state

by which they cannot fully understand

the outside world using their existing

mental Maps once in this context they

are primed to revise and restructure

their schema in order to incorporate new

information and experiences and bring

about equilibrium and hence to learn

something anybody who's taken a toddler

to a farm will recognize this process

they will often point at animals and

incorrectly identify them look a doggy

they yell pointing at a

cow by pointing out the error of their

identification and offering information

on how to make the distinction the adult

is able to both bring about

disequilibrium and allowed the learner

to accommodate new information to

address

this the second aspect of Pi's work

holds that learning is governed by

biologically determined stages of

development the

the reason why six-year-old rocket

scientists are thin on the ground is not

just because of the quantity of their

knowledge but also the quality of their

thinking their cognitive capacity to

receive and transform

information much of PR's work is an

attempt to document these mental stages

and the capacities that they bring again

these are detailed more extensively

elsewhere p and the other

constructivists have been significantly

influential in priming Educators to

think of their Learners as active and

engaged and not just as passive vessels

for the reception of content they have

inspired others to produce pedagogies

which draw on these principles in order

to promote

learning David osel is one such thinker

his model begins with an assertion that

we should start not with what we want to

teach children but with what they

already know this emphasis is a radical

challenge to teachers who feel

particularly that they are subject

experts but it rests fundamentally on

schema Theory unless we start at this

point the learner will have no sense of

connection between new understandings

and old and they will simply forget

misunderstand or not understand at

all in practice osabel suggests that we

can manage this process in a number of

ways the most important is Baseline

assessment and simply getting to know

classes Beyond this we need to manage

the integration of new content in very

carefully organized ways so that we

fully emphasize the similarity and

difference between

ideas one way of doing this is by

signaling these connections formally at

the onset of teaching using what oabel

calls an advanced organizer or in

prevalent popular language the shared

learning

objective Jerome Bruner is another

constructivist whose contribution to

pedagogy has been significant like oabel

Bruner suggests that the learner needs

to be actively engaged with the process

if it's to be

successful where oel places emphasis on

the teacher in managing this however

Bruner implicates the learner

themselves in his model of Discovery

learning Bruner suggests that we should

present students not with organized

content but with the raw stimuli by

which they can discover the connection

between ideas themselves in this model

the teacher becomes a facilitator

carefully designing learning experiences

which challenge the learner to solve

problems generate order and in doing so

produce understanding for

themselves for much of its history

constructivism has been dominated by a

focus on the atomized individual as a

unit of

analysis this is perhaps a cultural bias

stemming from its origins in Western

capitalist and individualistic

Societies in this context it's

interesting that an alternative more

socially sensitive version of the

approach arose independently in the

Communist

East Levi gotsky worked at the same time

as Pi though his influence in the West

Was impeded by the Iron Curtain he has

risen to occupy a similar status of

dominance in many ways vigotsky offers a

similar perspective to the Western

constructivists with an active learner

at the center of the

model however where Pi sees a biological

basis to progression votsi focuses

instead on culture and social

experience vot's Theory suggests that an

individual is capable of learning to a

certain extent in isolation but through

collaboration with others they can

achieve much more vigotsky calls the

difference between individual and

potential learning the zone of proximal

development vigotsky proceeds to suggest

that two key qualities are necessary

features of any interaction to promote

learning the first is scaffolding by

which one individual offers cognitive

support to another in reaching a

particular objective through for

instance careful

questioning the second is subjectivity

or a difference in existing

schema most commonly this is interpreted

as differences in ability and as a

justification for mixed ability

teaching in reality vot's intended

meaning was broader referring to any

difference in perspective in combining

different views of the world vski

suggests that both parties are able to

generate new understandings to which

they would otherwise not have

access Central to vot's perspective is

an emphasis on language as a mechanism

in learning on the surface this is

perhaps obvious for talk is the medium

through which interaction often occurs

however vigotsky sees language as

something more sophisticated than a

technical tool more than just a way of

conveying

content rather he suggest that language

also brings with it the tools by which

our cultures think about the world

semiotic set of classifications

divisions and categories around which

schema are

organized the internalization of

language then and growing Mastery over

it is more than just a technical

exercise it is also a process of

internalizing culturally specific ways

of

thinking the influence of vigotsky on

pedagogy has been significant heralding

a focus on communal activity in the

classroom on mixed ability work and

increasing

interaction the later emphasis on

language has in recent years seen

something of an upsurge in interest in

perhaps one of the most important turns

in contemporary learning

theory these theorists of whom Robin

Alexander and Neil Mercer are

particularly well known have taken up

vot's emphasis on Mastery of language as

a facet of learning in a dialogic turn

in

education Central to this turn is an

assertion that to properly understand

learning we need to pay attention to the

qualities and nature of talk in

classrooms in this mode Robin Alexander

has undertaken a cross-cultural study of

classroom discourse identifying a set of

common forms these range from wrote

recitation through to the giving of

instruction and explanation and into

discussion Alexander suggests though

that the most powerful form of talk is

what he calls dialogic talk here the

teacher abandons a sense of a preferred

right answer and instead encourages an

open-ended conversation in which the

process of argumentation is more

important than the product of an

argument dialogic teaching is marked by

an attempt to probe and extend thinking

in a collaborative discussion with a

focus on those themes and ideas which

are initiated by the

Learner in Britain however Alexander

notes that such an approach is rare this

is not necessarily because of bad

practice but rather the constraints of

context we occupy an education system

which emphasizes answers and this runs

contrary to the aims of dialogic

teaching the result according to

Alexander is a game of hunt the answer a

pattern of initiation response and

feedback as the teacher attempts to

produce the single correct idea they

have in their heads amongst classes

through

questioning for Alexander such an

approach pushes out the opportunity for

a more productive and interrogative open

dialogue Alex 's work on teacher talk

has been replicated elsewhere by merer

focusing on the qualities of Talk

Amongst Learners here Mera finds a

tendency towards disputational and

cumulative forms of interaction the

first is based on disagreement and

argument and the latter a gradual

buildup of a single idea both He

suggests are counterproductive because

they fail to interrogate and unpick

meanings and ideas or attend to the

process of

argumentation explor talk by contrast

has the same open and integ interative

qualities of dialogic teaching and this

tends towards a deeper and more genuine

form of

understanding and this brings us to the

end of our cursory exploration of the

nature of learning theory a journey

which began with ancient history

proceeded through each of the key eras

of human society and into the modern

psycho dominant era here we have

explored the principles of three key

perspectives the behaviorists the

constructivists and the more recent

dialogic

turn historical tellings of this kind

tend towards the illusion of a March of

progress the sense of a journey towards

a definitive and proven theory of

learning in the face of this it's worth

a brief repost to remind ourselves that

we seek the Philosopher's Stone a

mythical if convenient

substance the theories explored here

occur in context and these shape which

are seen as more legitimate and

productive in in as much as their

inherent truthfulness or

usefulness this said like The Alchemist

of old the work of learning theory is

not futile it's generated Insight in

some of the ways that learning can be

interpreted and has made suggestions

about practice that might be effective

in educational

settings as such an engagement with them

by a critically engaged and autonomous

student is always productive