Developmental Psychology - Human Development - CH1
Summary
TLDRThis introductory developmental psychology lecture covers the basics of human development, exploring how individuals change over time through physiological and psychological means. It delves into themes like nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development. The lecture introduces key theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Piaget, outlining their contributions to understanding cognitive development. It also discusses research methods, emphasizing the importance of reliability, validity, and the peer-review process in scientific studies.
Takeaways
- 📚 The course covers human development from various scientific perspectives, not just psychology, including physiology and social concepts.
- 🧬 The nature versus nurture debate is a central theme, exploring the influence of genetics and environment on human development.
- 🔄 The concepts of continuity and discontinuity in development are discussed, highlighting whether growth is a smooth process or occurs in distinct stages.
- 🌐 Universal versus context-specific development is examined, questioning if development follows a single path globally or is influenced by societal and environmental factors.
- 🧬🌱 Biological forces, such as genetics and health, are key factors in human development, alongside psychological and cognitive factors.
- 🤝🌐 Social and cultural forces are emphasized as significant in shaping an individual's development, including interpersonal interactions and societal norms.
- 🔄 Life cycle forces are also considered, acknowledging that certain developments are time-bound and occur during specific life stages.
- 💭 Theories in psychology, such as those by Freud, Erikson, Skinner, Piaget, and Vygotsky, provide frameworks for understanding different aspects of development.
- 🧠 Cognitive development is explored through stages, beginning with sensorimotor and progressing to formal operations, with Piaget's theory being central.
- 👶🏫 Vygotsky's social learning theory introduces the concept of the 'zone of proximal development', emphasizing the role of social interaction in learning.
- 🎼 The importance of music education in Brevard County schools is highlighted as an example of how historical context and government policy can influence educational practices.
Q & A
What is the main focus of the first chapter in the developmental psychology course?
-The first chapter focuses on an overview of human development and the study of human development, including basic definitions and the various aspects that contribute to human development over time.
What are the three main themes discussed throughout the course?
-The three main themes are nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development.
How does the course address the concept of nature versus nurture?
-The course discusses the debate between the influence of genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on human development, using examples such as the determinants of IQ.
What does the term 'continuity versus discontinuity' refer to in the context of human development?
-Continuity versus discontinuity refers to whether human development occurs in a smooth, continuous process or if it happens in distinct stages.
Can you explain the concept of 'universal versus context-specific development'?
-Universal versus context-specific development questions whether development follows a single path for all individuals or if it is influenced by societal and environmental contexts, leading to different developmental paths.
What are the four forces that contribute to human development according to the course?
-The four forces are biological forces (genetics and health), psychological forces (including cognitive development), social-cultural forces, and life cycle forces.
What is the definition of a 'theory' in the context of psychology?
-In psychology, a 'theory' is an organized set of ideas designed to explain some sort of development. It has undergone scientific analysis through experimentation or study and is not based on guesswork.
How does the course discuss the contributions of Freud to psychology?
-The course highlights Freud's role in bringing psychology into the academic world and his development of concepts such as the id, ego, and super-ego, as well as the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
What is Erikson's contribution to the study of human development?
-Erikson, a neo-Freudian, contributed by emphasizing the importance of culture in human development and proposing eight stages of development, each characterized by a crisis that shapes an individual's identity.
Can you provide an example of how the course explains cognitive development?
-The course explains cognitive development through the work of Piaget, who proposed stages of cognitive development, starting from the sensory-motor stage in infants to the formal operational stage in late adolescence and early adulthood.
What is the significance of the 'zone of proximal development' in Vygotsky's theory?
-Vygotsky's 'zone of proximal development' refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance or collaboration, highlighting the social-cultural influence on learning and development.
How does the course introduce Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory?
-The course introduces Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory as an approach that views human development as interactive and influenced by multiple interconnected systems, ranging from the microsystem to the macrosystem.
What are the four features of the lifespan approach discussed in the course?
-The four features of the lifespan approach are multi-directionality, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation, emphasizing the complexity and interrelatedness of developmental processes over time.
What is the difference between a longitudinal study and a cross-sectional study?
-A longitudinal study follows the same participants over an extended period, while a cross-sectional study examines different age groups at the same point in time, making assumptions about development based on these different groups.
How does a meta-analysis contribute to understanding in developmental psychology?
-A meta-analysis combines data from multiple studies to identify patterns and relationships across research, providing a broader perspective on a particular topic and helping to confirm or refute existing theories.
What is the importance of peer-reviewed journals in the scientific community?
-Peer-reviewed journals are important because they ensure that research is accurate, valid, and reliable. Studies published in these journals undergo a rigorous review process by other experts in the field before being accepted for publication.
Outlines
😀 Introduction to Developmental Psychology
This paragraph introduces the course on developmental psychology, emphasizing that Chapter 1 will serve as an overview of human development. It discusses the multifaceted nature of human development, covering physiological, psychological, and social changes over time. The themes of nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development are introduced, highlighting the interplay between genetics, environment, and societal influences on development.
🧠 Theories and Perspectives in Psychology
The second paragraph delves into the concept of a theory in psychology, distinguishing it from a hypothesis and emphasizing the role of scientific analysis. It outlines various psychological perspectives, including psychoanalysis with Freud and Erikson, learning theory with Skinner, cognitive development with Piaget and Vygotsky, and ecological theory with Bronfenbrenner. Each theory is briefly explained, providing insight into how they contribute to our understanding of human development.
👶 Freud's and Erikson's Stages of Development
This paragraph focuses on Freud's structural model of the mind, including the id, ego, and superego, and how they contribute to our behavior and morality. It then transitions to Erikson's psychosocial theory, which builds upon Freud's work by incorporating the influence of culture. Erikson's eight stages of development are mentioned, each characterized by a crisis that, when resolved, shapes our identity and sense of self.
🎓 Learning Theories and Cognitive Development
The fourth paragraph explores learning theories, particularly Skinner's operant conditioning, and its focus on the role of consequences in shaping behavior. It then discusses social learning theory and observational learning, where individuals learn by imitating others who are perceived as successful or admirable. The paragraph also covers cognitive development, with Piaget's theory of stages emphasizing the progressive increase in cognitive abilities from birth to adulthood.
🧑🤝🧑 Social Cultural Influences and Zone of Proximal Development
This paragraph expands on Vygotsky's social cultural influence on child development, introducing the concept of 'more knowledgeable others' and the zone of proximal development. It explains how learning occurs in the context of social interaction and how the zone of proximal development represents the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance or collaboration.
🎼 The Interconnectedness of Developmental Systems
The sixth paragraph illustrates the interconnectedness of various systems in human development using the example of music education in schools. It discusses how macro-level influences, such as government policies, can impact micro-level experiences, such as a child's opportunity to learn a musical instrument. The paragraph also touches on the importance of considering historical context and multiple causations in understanding development.
🧬 Lifespan Development and Research Methods
The seventh paragraph introduces the lifespan approach to development, which considers multidirectional growth, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation. It also discusses various research methods in developmental psychology, including naturalistic and structured observation, sampling behaviors, and self-reporting. The paragraph emphasizes the importance of reliability and validity in research and the difference between a population and a sample.
🔍 Correlations, Experimental Designs, and Research Studies
The eighth paragraph discusses the concept of correlation and its limitation in proving causation. It explains experimental designs that establish cause-and-effect relationships, including the roles of independent and dependent variables. The paragraph also covers different types of research designs, such as longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential studies, as well as meta-analysis for synthesizing research findings. It concludes with the significance of peer-reviewed journals in validating and disseminating scientific research.
📚 Conclusion and Overview of Developmental Psychology
The final paragraph summarizes the key points covered in the first chapter of developmental psychology. It reiterates the importance of understanding various theories, research methods, and the peer-review process in the study of human development. The paragraph concludes with an invitation to the next class, emphasizing the ongoing exploration of developmental psychology.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Human Development
💡Nature versus Nurture
💡Stages of Development
💡Cognitive Development
💡Psychoanalysis
💡Operant Conditioning
💡Observational Learning
💡Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
💡Life Span Development
💡Research Methods
💡Peer Review
Highlights
The course begins with an overview of human development, examining how people change over time across various ages.
Human development is studied through multiple areas including psychology, physiology, and social concepts.
Three main themes discussed are nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development.
The role of biological forces, psychological forces, social-cultural forces, and life cycle forces in shaping human development is explored.
A theory in psychology is defined as an organized set of ideas designed to explain some sort of development, backed by scientific analysis.
Sigmund Freud's contributions to psychology, including his theories on the id, ego, and super-ego, are reviewed.
Erik Erikson's eight stages of development and their impact on forming personal identity are discussed.
B.F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning and the role of reinforcement and punishment in behavior is covered.
The concept of observational learning or imitation in social learning theory is introduced, emphasizing the importance of modeling behavior.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development and his stages, from sensorimotor to formal operations, are explained.
Vygotsky's social-cultural influence on cognitive development, including the zone of proximal development, is highlighted.
The ecological systems theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner, which views human development as an interaction of various systems, is presented.
The lifespan approach to development, featuring multi-directional growth, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation, is discussed.
Research methods in developmental psychology, including naturalistic and structured observation, sampling behaviors, and self-reporting, are outlined.
The importance of reliability and validity in research, and the difference between a population and a sample, is emphasized.
Types of research designs, such as experimental, longitudinal, cross-sectional, sequential, and meta-analysis, are explained.
The process of communicating research results through peer-reviewed journals and the significance of publication in these journals is discussed.
Transcripts
hello and welcome to developmental
psychology we're going to start right
away with chapter one and work our way
through now chapter one is going to be a
little different than the rest of the
chapters where we're going to be looking
at in this chapter is sort of an
overview of human development and the
study of human development we get into
the later chapters starting with sort of
chapter three we're really gonna start
hitting different ages so we want to
start with a basic definition of human
development and what we're talking about
here in this class is we're gonna be
looking at how people change over a
period of time as we think about it who
we were when we were five versus who we
were only ten fifteen twenty twenty-five
and multiple ages after that really
changes and so this looks at those
changes we're gonna look at some
physiological changes some psychological
changes but basically it's going to be
looking at the change now this is not
based on just one particular area of
science human development this is gonna
be looking at multiple areas so it's not
just psychology but it'll be physiology
and social concepts so there's gonna be
a lot to do within this class now there
are going to be three themes that we
keep talking about and the first one's
gonna be nature versus nurture so the
question is how much Who am I based on
my genes that I got from my parents and
who-who am i based on the environment
and this is something that's always a
controversy between the two how much
does each one give so is your IQ because
of your parents or is your IQ because
you were able to go to special schools
and got all kinds of special treatment
and you've got high IQ things which one
really influenced your IQ the most and
we know that there's going to be some
that's based on your environment and
there's gonna be some that's gonna be
based on your genetics and we'll be
looking at that now continue versus
discontinuity basically is it's a smooth
pass or do we have stages now this one's
pretty easy to spot when you talk about
things because if we talk about stages
so we'll talk about a gentleman named
Erik Erikson later on and we talked
about his stages of development which we
he ceases as discontinued allottee which
means it's not smooth and keep going
where is our physical development we can
think of that as sort of continued
allottee that there's not really a stop
and start sort of to that process when
we're talking about babies growing now
Universal versus context-specific
development the question is is is there
only one way to develop or does our
society and our environments and where
we grow does that affect the way that we
develop and so your book gives a really
good example about how the children in
the United States don't want to count
money until they're somewhere in the
second or third grade is when we really
begin to work on money and yet there are
kids in other parts of the world which
are counting money very early in life
many of them are doing money and stuff
like this by time they're five or six
they're down in the marketplace is
selling basic things so that kind of
shows us that learning to count money is
not a universal thing it doesn't happen
all the same time around the world it's
rather a context specific thing the
forces that we'll be talking about that
tends to make up this subject is first
our biological forces so that's our
genetics and health related things we'll
talk about the psychological forces
within development and cognitive is one
of the things we talk about the most
now cognitive that's were that sometimes
people here sometimes don't hear but
let's make sure we're all in the same
page for this definition cognitive is
thinking some of you might think of it
as the mind when we say what's Society
of Psychology and people say the study
of the mind really they're talking about
how we think how we problem-solve how we
do things and that's sort of where
cognitive sits our social cultural
forces are something we also focus on so
the question is is how does our society
are at the Missy D and our interpersonal
react reactions to things really help
develop who we are as a person and who
we are across cultures that even us for
ourselves so I live here on the beach
and does living on the beach give me a
different sort of social cultural
background the people who live on the
mainland we always call us beach bums
and those are the mainlanders and there
is some slight differences and it does
affect who we become as people and then
we have to think about life for
and those what we're talking about here
is that our life cycle this life cycle
forces tend to also dictate who we are
there are only certain times in our life
that certain things are going to happen
and so those life cycle forces then
affect who we become as people and who
we are at the moment now the first thing
is we're going to talk about what is a
theory theory is one of those words that
tends to be thrown around a lot and we
is a very specific definition within
psychology basically it's an organized
set of ideas as designed to explain some
sort of development basically a theory
has to be something that has gone
through some sort of scientific analysis
and it's done through experimentation or
scientific study of some sort and we'll
talk a lot about scientific studies
later on but a theory is not so that it
comes from the gut now we do hear people
use words that way however that truly is
a hypothesis because we are in a science
class now so we're not going to use
theory as a guess a theory has to be
something that has been proven we're
going to be covering a bunch of
different areas within psychology and
these are sort of some of the biggies
you might want to say psychoanalysis
here we're going to be talking about
Freud and Erikson now Erikson is really
going to be your big person for this
class in fact you're going to need
Erikson for the rest of your time if you
were going into the nursing foundations
they're saying very much focuses on
Erikson and so I warn the nurses you
need to be able to memorize and
regurgitate Erikson Skinner is gonna
come under our learners and some of you
may have heard about Skinner back in
your intro class and operant
conditioning when we talk about
cognitive it's all about PJ PJ is our
big guy and we will talk about mr. vo
over here he's a little bit more in the
cognitive area we don't focus on him as
much and then finally we have our
ecological and I simply call him Yuri
because I say his name wrong all the
time and those are gonna be our big ones
are gonna focus on now when we get into
the chapters we're gonna get into these
gentlemen a little bit more specifically
and their theories of human development
specifically
this one we're just gonna kind of skim
over a little bit about many of them so
when we talk about Freud one of the
things we like about Freud is that he
really brings psychology into the
academic world until Freud comes along
we mostly had psychology in the
background it was something we just did
with crazy people in institutions or it
was mostly only done within academia but
he says hey you know what there are
other people who really need to use
psychology and we need to use psychology
in multiple ways so he brings this out
sort of to the real world which is why
Freud is so well known he also brought a
lot of the words that we tend to use
today Anil personality libretto denial
these are all words that come basically
from Freud in fact the word ego is
developed by Freud now Freud also
develops this concept that there are
three parts of the mind and if you took
our intro class to kind of cover this a
little bit but we've got the conscious
the preconscious and the unconscious now
the conscious is what you're aware so
right now you are listening to me which
means that your conscious is working um
preconscious maybe things that you're
aware of but you're not really focused
on right now but if you focus on it you
would understand it now the unconscious
is sort of our biological instincts
these are the things that sort of sit
underneath the surface and we're not
always aware of it he truly felt that if
we could become more aware of our
unconscious area that we would be able
to have better control of it and that
was the goal that he was working on was
the goal of control
if we let his three parts of personality
and again this is just a quick review
from our intro class what we have is the
conscious the preconscious and the
unconscious but within those three parts
of personality we have the it the ego
and the super-ego now remember the end
is all about pleasure it's sort of the
the pleasure principle it rules you as
far as wanting to have fun but what's
interesting is is that it's in the
unconscious so generally he felt like
this drive to have pleasure was
something we weren't always aware we're
controlling us so my great example
always is this morning when you woke up
there was this little voice it said just
stay in bed that is cool
don't get up well you can think of that
as your it'd you probably weren't really
aware that it was saying that to you and
he thought was is that if you were
somebody who were to focus on pleasure
too much trying to always have fun all
the time then we needed to help you
focus on how to listen to that voice and
control that voice well that voice is
controlled by the ego which notice is in
the conscious and the pre unconscious a
little bit in the unconscious area
basically he really thought the ego was
this very complex thing but it was ruled
by the reality principle it's that
little voice at this morning they said
no get your ass out of bed and move so
your ego is the one that sort of manages
your day-to-day activities he thought if
your it was too big that basically your
ego got squished so you were basically
running around looking for fun all the
time without really thinking about the
reality of what that might do to you so
you think about the friends you know who
are always sort of in trouble because
all they do is run around and have fun
and they don't think about the financial
cost or the physical Costas might have
and he would say they're being ruled by
their heed we're in the other thing is
is that we would have the ego and if the
ego was too big it covered up sort of
the it'd and people stopped having fun
all they did was work all they did was
try to manage things they became very
controlling and because that's what they
need to do was control their world all
the time so he always was looking for
this sort of balance between the iddah
and the ego then the last thing is he
had this super ego the super-ego is kind
of interesting
he said the super-ego is really were our
values and our morals saat but it's the
place that really we judge things so we
judge the actions that we took not the
actions of others but the actions that
we took ourselves and he really felt
that if you were taking an action that
was not within what you thought was
correct then that tended to build
anxiety or if you didn't know what
action to take that would build anxiety
I need a couple of different anxieties
we're not so interested in that in this
class but you notice that the super-ego
runs sort of the length of the it'd
the ego and that's because he really
felt that it had a very strong component
to what we do also notice that if you
look at this little line where the
unconscious is that most of it actually
sits in our unconscious and he really
felt that a lot of what drove us we just
wanted to wear up and that's why you
really focused on trying to make people
more aware of their actions
now Erikson he actually studies under
Freud he's what we call a neo Freudian
and he really believed that culture was
sort of at the center of what we do it's
not that he didn't like what Freud said
but he kind of just took it another step
now we're gonna be covering Erikson a
great deal when we get into each phase
of life and so the thing is is that he
has these eight stages that all develop
who we are now we thought most of them
happened before we were eighteen but the
the development itself really varied on
what he called these crises so here are
the basic stages don't worry about
memorizing regurgitating them now as I
said we're gonna go into these a more
depth when we get into each chapter but
what we have are these basic conflicts
so when we're young from birth to 18
months of old he really felt like this
trust or mistrust was what we were
working on and then we had the anatomy
autonomy versus shame and doubt you know
did we get to find that we walked and
talked to ourselves or were we always
worried about what somebody else was
saying then somewhere in preschool the
question is is did we begin to take
initiative or we're always feeling
guilty about you know trying to move
forward you might want to say um he
thought in school industrious versus
inferiority becomes in there basically
we need to begin to able to cope with
things we need to be able to develop a
sense of ourselves away from our parents
and we also need to be able to figure
out if we're gonna do things for
ourselves or we just always gonna wait
for somebody else to do it
adolescence is one of our fun stages we
have a couple of chapters dedicated to
just adolescence and the big thing in
adolescence is beginning to identify who
we are and developing that identity and
that
a lot of strife you might wanna say in
one's life because we have to begin to
decide how much of what we decide is us
and how much of what we decide is based
on our parents even down to things like
the shampoo we use is it my am I using
this shampoo because I picked it or
because my parents picked it for me
basically Who am I as a person and
there's a lot of conflict at this time
as far as internally trying to figure
out who I am in the young adulthood it
knows he says 19 to 40 but this happens
a little bit more the 20s and the 30s
we're talking about intimacy versus
isolation basically are we gonna be able
to develop long lasting loving
relationships now these relationships
don't always have to be of a sexual
nature we're talking about friendships
we're talking about you know good
friends that we might be able to do or
are we going to wind up in isolation
where we don't have a whole lot of
friends now he believes that a lot of
this has to also deal with identity that
if we haven't developed our identity
it's really gonna be hard for us to
develop intimacy now this phase when
we're talking about our older middle
youth kind of adulthood basically up
till retirement age is talking about are
we going to be keep moving forward are
we going to stagnate are we just going
to be you know we hit 40 and we just
don't really change much until we retire
and he really felt that the people who
kept moving and progressing and doing
things and finding new things were
people who tended to be happier versus
the people who went into stagnation
where they just really didn't do much
new things then at the end when we talk
about sixty five to death and we might
actually bump that up a little bit
higher the question is is are we happy
with the life we've chosen or do we tend
to go into despair and again we're gonna
cover each one of these much more in
depth and we go to each chapter this is
the only time though in your chapter
you're going to see all of them together
so if you're a person who every once a
while wants to go back and say wait I
forgotten how this one relates to that
one mark this page in your book and
you'll want to go back and look at it
the chart the book looks a little bit
different than this one I kind of like
this one I forgot where I stole this one
from but this one is a nice one because
I like that it has our outcomes in it
with the learning theorist what we're
talking about here is kind of a fun
thing Skinner he's best known for what's
called operant conditioning and you may
have heard about the little Skinner box
or the mouse run around and they press
these levels well what he's trying to do
is decide what consequence will
determine if that behavior happens again
so if I push the lever and I get food
I'll be likely as a mouse to go push
that lever again to get some more food
so the consequences is something that is
reinforcing I'm going to keep doing it
however if the consequence is something
that's considered to be a punishment
then I'm going to decrease that behavior
now what we talk about when we talk
about reinforcement we're talking about
positive and negative reinforcement now
here's where we have to come back to
some words the word positive and
negative this does not mean good and bad
if you went through our development our
intro to psych we pushed us and pushes
and push this positive and negative
refers to a number line which side of
zero are we on and depending on what
we're studying would depend on which
side you would like to be on the word we
want to focus here is on the word
reinforcement anytime you see the word
reinforcement and I don't care which one
of these come in front of it remember
there's an increase in behavior positive
reinforcement is talking about the
development of something good starting
negative reinforcement is talking about
something bad ending we don't like bad
things so we're gonna make sure we don't
have those happen again and we're gonna
find out whatever it is I need to do to
make sure it doesn't happen again the
other thing he talks about is punishment
and we know something is punishment if
it actually decreases the chance that
behavior is gonna happen again so if I
touch a hot stove I don't like it I'm
not likely to touch that hot stove again
now if you have not taken our
introduction of psychology class yet or
it's been a very long time there is a
lecture called conditioning and learning
that I put together for psychology 101 -
I'm going to put that in our class
you don't need to watch it unless you
really want to go back and sort of catch
up a little bit on conditioning and
learning it is something that they
assume that you know as you read through
this book because this course is of us
we take it after introduction to
psychology occasionally I get people who
get this before that so you might really
want to go and listen to that or if it's
been a very long time you may want to
choose to go back and listen to that
lecture it is not required them now with
the social learning theorists what we're
talking about is observational learning
or imitation and we know especially with
childhood this is something that people
are going to do a great deal and you
actually do this even as adults because
you think about it you're going to be
watching other students you're going to
be watching other people in class do
certain things and then you're going to
follow that example so what we talked
about observational learning let's say
that you're in the nursing program and
you have to learn how to give a shot
well you know you're gonna watch
somebody else give a shot first before
you give a shot I would hope so and so
you're going to be learning by watching
other people now what we do find is that
imitation tends to happen a lot more if
we feel like the subject is popular
smart or talented and that we think that
there's some sort of reward to that
behavior now with cognitive development
Theory we're talking about the
development of the thought process how
do we develop thought and there's gonna
be a couple people we look at with this
now there are three basic approaches
that our book will talk about push a
looks at stages so he kind of thinks of
this as being step by step by step and
then we go vhere who really says that
it's not only the age but he thinks of
this as sort of an apprenticeship that
basically our social our culture is
going to influence a lot of how we think
about things and then last there's the
information processing theory these are
more about computers and you know how we
bring information in and how we think
about it and the brain is really the
best computer out there now we as a
class don't really focus much on this
one if you are going into education you
may want to read up on this one a little
bit more but from
our students as they're going more into
the medical fields it's just not one
that we bring forward a great deal so
let's look at page a first well PJ
started to notice this difference when
he was beginning to help people develop
a cognitive ability test and for France
he was working with the Binet
intelligence test and what he began to
realize is that you know kids and adults
they they learn very differently and so
as he began to notice that kids were
learning differently he wanted to know
how that occurred well what he began to
realize is that kids experiment they did
little things if we think about you know
little babies and we think about 1 year
olds and 2 year olds they're triangle
things it doesn't matter how many times
we tell them something they're gonna try
it anyway why is that because they have
no brains yet they're little squishy
things they're not mature brains like
ours they don't even have all the parts
of the brain yet as far as thought
cognitive processes are concerned so PJ
was very interested in how does that
develop over time so what he did is he
focus on development now the reason this
is important is he's not focusing on how
we learn he's not focusing on what we
learn he's too focusing on the
development how does the brain develop
over time and then that development of
the brain how does that reflect on our
cognitive thought so don't confuse this
with education
now cognitive stages he believed was
because as children became more aware of
their surroundings they became
increasingly more cognitive and one of
the things that's interesting about PJ
is and he came up with a lot of his
concepts before we really even
understood the development of the brain
so he's a pretty smart man now he also
believed that there are these three
basic parts now we're gonna go into
these again and when we start covering
it's chapter 4 so but this is just sort
of a quick overview for you but he
thought of these three basic parts to
develop the cognitive development of the
brain first of these schemas and what
schema is
is basically a scene in your head and
this is how we think things are
organized this is how we believe
something is going to work and as we get
older we are going to course develop
more of these because we have more
scenarios in our head and so if we think
about it when I'm a kid all I think
about it that there's a car and it rolls
down the road as I get older I begin to
understand that cars have parts and then
as I get older to that I mean that parts
begin to fall apart
then I begin there saying that there may
have to be oil changes and his question
was well how do we begin to understand
all that and so what he said is that we
have to adapt so an adjustment has to be
done and they were kind of three parts
of this adjustment there's a simulation
accommodation and equilibrium now with a
simulation what we're doing is we're
using our current knowledge to
understand the new objects or situation
so I'm a little kid I understand that
cars roll down the road somebody gives
me a little play car and I roll it back
and forth because I understand that
that's what cars do now all of a sudden
I begin to saying that cars have motors
and motors run now somebody gives me a
toy car and I begin to see if I can open
the hood of that toy car and I'm
wondering why why can't I open the hood
to this toy car I don't get this well
what happens is that our new information
doesn't fit our current schema which is
that cars have engines and you should be
able to know about the car and see the
engine well this is gonna get me
frustrated I'm Alok a because this car
hood doesn't open this toy car and so I
have to begin to understand something
and what I begin to understand is that
there's a difference between the toy car
and a real car once I've got that some
learning has happened and my frustration
goes away because I understand toy cars
don't have engines and real cars do now
he believed that there were four basic
stages and again this is a very very
simple overview because we're gonna go
into detail as we get through the
chapters the first one the sensory motor
is from birth to 2 years of age and
basically you know a little baby to two
years there's not a whole lot of brain
power going on yet he's basically or
she's basically just getting a concept
about the world although we're still
going through those stages we just
talked about we have a belief of what
happens and then things change and
that's where we get the learning
pre-operational stage we begin to get
the ability to use symbols and if we
think about it
letters are symbols and so why is this
important because once we begin to
understand that letters are symbols and
once we understand what symbols mean we
can really begin to develop language
the other big thing about the the two to
seven year old age is that we only look
at things based on our own perspective
our own perspective so this egocentric
kind of atmosphere becomes and we've all
heard the joke about the two-year-old
the world is all about me everything is
about me and we'll explore that further
as we get into other chapters from there
he thinks of us having this concrete
operational thought that's 7 to early
adolescence somewhere in there we're
gonna do that what's going to begin to
happen is is that we're going to use
what we call here-and-now logic you know
this is what I see so this is what it
must be things are very concrete very
black and white
during this phase and that's how I kind
of remember it it's the black and white
phrase you know pizzas only have eight
slices and so when you tell me getting a
pizza with ten slices they'll argue with
you that you can't have a pizza it has
ten slices or they're argue with you
that you can't have a pizza that's
square because pizzas are always round
things are very concrete to them it's
not until we get a little bit older sort
of beyond adolescence very late high
school early college that we begin to
develop this formal operation and the
big thing here is that we begin to
develop abstract thought and we can
begin to develop hypothetical situations
so hypothetically if this happens what
would happen hypothetically if this
would happen what would happen and this
is really a big developmental stage
according to push a now PJ sort of ends
there but we're gonna find out that we
keep developing thought after that now
mister V here he's kind of interesting
because as I said he emphasizes this
social cultural influence of child
development where PJ's only talk about
development and then learning this one's
looking at how our social learning
influences our development so one of the
big
he talks about is MK OS or more
knowledge of others and what he believed
is is that we would learn best when
we're in situations that somebody knows
something just a little bit higher than
me now the person who knows that higher
knowledge doesn't have to always be much
older than me simply they know a little
bit more so what's gonna happen is is
you're going to have a teacher and in
this case my teacher knows more letters
than I do so my teachers going to help
me understand letters but I could also
be learning from a six-year-old who
knows more about letters that I do at
four he really didn't focus on the age
as much as the fact that somebody would
know a little bit more than you that led
him to something called the zone of
proximal development and this is one
that again a lot of our medical people
people in our occupational therapy
assistant programs things in our nursing
programs people in our health service
administration program will talk a lot
about zone of proximal development or
the CBD what we're talking about is what
is the difference between what I cannot
do without help versus what I can do by
myself now what we mean by this is that
you know if I I can't do it even with
help means that I do have the potential
to be able to do it so I can't sit there
and say well we're gonna talk about
somebody who oh let me give an example
somebody who's just had their legs
unfortunately amputated they don't have
their artificial legs yet so we can't
even talk about them walking yet because
I don't have their artificial legs yet
but now they get their artificial legs
so they still can't walk but they could
if somebody lifts them and helps them
and shows them sort of that step by step
stuff now the difference is is what I
can do by myself well I can put my legs
on by myself and I can learn to stand by
myself so the zone of development is
sort of learning to walk we could walk
with help we can put on our legs by
ourselves so what we're gonna be working
with that patient is this zone of
development now we also talked about
doing this in school we talked about
this as adults but basically this is
what these kind of concepts work and
again we're gonna go into these in depth
as we get there chapters that focus on
those areas remember this chapters just
giving you a little
you a little touch a little taste of
each one of these so you some basic
knowledge going forward now
the epilogue achill sort of approach
looks at all psychology very different
what they do is they say that all human
development is interactive and that we
can't just take one area of development
and stick it off all by itself
that we're connected but that there's no
single thing to really do to talk about
development that all aspects of our
lives sort of focus within development
this is one of our newer areas of
thought as far as human development is
concerned because it really needed to
have all these other things that we've
talked about to sort of come together
and what the big person that we really
talked about and this one is URI URI
looks at this chart right here and and
you'll find this in your textbook and
I'm gonna just tell you right now you
get to memorize regurgitate this there
are test questions on this but basically
what he says is that we have these
different systems and these systems are
constantly interacting with each other
if you think about a parent and child
are always interacting they're learning
and teaching to each other but I'm going
to use the example of music and we I'm
going to use music in Brevard County to
show how these different systems come
together so if you look at the next
system out here the mezzos system you'll
notice that school is listed there
well the question is is how does music
and school reflect on the child well
let's say that you go to school here in
Brevard County for you know 1st through
6th grade well one of the interesting
things about that is that almost all of
our schools here in Brevard County have
some sort of a music program with
instruments that is part of our schools
now why do they have that well let's go
to the exo system and over here we talk
about government and policies well why
we have that is because we had a
gentleman who was the head of Brevard
County Schools at one point who truly
believe that music education was
extremely important in the development
of a child's brain
truly believed that having spent the
money on music education that that would
help develop better thinking people well
how does he get that concept well he
gets that concept through historical
events and in this case it's through
research studies that show how music
helps develop the young brain so because
of this historical stuff out here the
macro system
it helped a government official decide
to dedicate money to music systems and
so musical education became part of our
school system and so now the child is in
school 1st through 6th grade they will
have an opportunity to learn a musical
instrument so that is where the child
will come home and say to the parent I
would like to learn violin and the
parent goes okay you're learning violin
at school that sounds good
that's a wonderful thing so it is these
different systems that are interrelated
that winds up with this child learning a
musical instrument when you perhaps have
parents who never played a musical
instrument at all
now the other reason I bring music is a
great example is we think about Brevard
County because in Brevard County we
happen to have some extraordinary music
programs you would think all schools
have this music program but they don't
so it's because we had this government
official who decided that music was
important our system that we have early
music education so how does that begin
to affect again the child in the long
run well there is this thing called
Allstate Orchestra competition and to
compete in Allstate Orchestra
competition this hat starts in seventh
grade all the musicians around the state
play the same piece of music and they
select the top players from the state to
go to the Allstate music orchestra now
if we talk about something like violin
or even the orchestra as a whole the
orchestra might have 50 kids in it let's
say only so many kids are gonna come
from each County and you know to go to
Allstate to be the best among the 50
kids in the whole state to play a
musical instrument is
enormous well with violin out of the 50
players there might be 20 25 oh it's
actually even number 26 violin players
let's say well what happened one year is
it's kind of a big deal is that brevard
county sent three people to the junior
high all state music orchestra we sent
three violinists anyway i say well three
out of 25 well yeah except for the fact
that miami-dade only sent one so if you
think about how large miami-dade county
is that's yeah the city of miami and
they only had one person who could make
it and then you look at little brevard
county which is far smaller but we had
three musicians who made it to the top
orchestra that shows you the influence
of music within the schools and that all
started from here from a government
official who decided that music was
important because he read it about some
historical events which then got into
the schools the schools liked it push it
down to the child and the parent
supported it and that's how this works
and that's what uri was talking about
that we can't just look at this as a
single event but that it's
interchangeable and that these different
layers work upon each other now we are
talking about the lifespan approach and
there are four features that we're gonna
be talking about as we go through our
different chapters one is called
multi-directional and that's basically
that the development growth and declines
sort of happen at the same time you know
we're talking about maybe bones going up
and mental processing going down or this
moving this way and that one moving that
way we can't say everything is moving at
the same direction at one time so we
talked about multi-directional as far as
development is concerned plasticity
basically says that we can improve and
develop throughout our lifetime certain
skills and abilities we talked about the
plasticity of the brain a lot if you
think about that they can compensate the
brain learns how to compensate for this
or learns how to compensate for that but
plasticity basically is just saying that
we can improve throughout our lifetime
and most things we do we talk about
historical
context were talking about how we must
consider an examined development over a
period of time you know what was the
child like at six months what were they
like at a year what were they like in
eighteen months and so historical
context card often can tell us a lot
about development in the future
so as an example my child did not get
his first tooth until he was 13 months
old now I know this because we kept
joking for his first birthday all the
child wanted was a tooth one tooth
that's it well he develops his first
tooth at 13 months old so by knowing
this now that he's a much older child we
realize that all of his teeth are going
to come in a little bit later where
other kids might have these molars and
these other things when they're young my
child is not gonna be getting them until
much later because he's just simply
developing his teeth a little bit later
so a historical context in this case
gives us an idea of what's going to
happen in the future
and what should be happening here in the
present so let's say that most kids
develop their wisdom teeth around 15
we're guessing my kid won't develop his
wisdom teeth until maybe 16 or 17 and so
we're not gonna be too worried about
that because we know that simply as far
as teeth are concerned he's a little bit
late on teeth development not a big deal
probably something genetic within the
family context multiple causation
basically says that there is not one
thing to consider again that sort of
multi-directional that different things
are growing different times so multiple
causation says that that something is
caused not just simply by a lifecycle
force or simply by a biological but that
we need to look at all three and four
things at one time that it could be a
physiological a social cultural on a
lifecycle all happening and that all
these things together sort of help us
understand the development and so as we
talk about this lifespan approach we're
going to be looking at all four of those
now what's really interesting is is that
once we get into talking about sort of
kids and adults and all that our
chapters are actually gonna be divided
up the first chapter is always going to
be biological and psychological and the
second chapters tend to be social
cultural and life cycle so adolescents
will go over two chapters
you know school goes over two chapters
late adulthood goes over two chapters
and we have sort of this pattern that
begins to emerge now when we start
talking about research the other thing
that we need to understand is that
there's more than one research project
again we went through this an
introduction of psychology if you did
not get introduction of psychology yet
I'm going to encourage you to listen to
the chapter one video that I have posted
from introduction of psychology because
it goes into more detail about research
and developmental aspects of research
again they assume that you know this
information because you've had that
class or if it's been a really long time
since you've had that class you might
want to just go back and re-listen to
that lecture just so you sort of catch
up and have this knowledge but the first
thing that they talk about in your book
is a systematic approach and when we
talk about that we talked about two
basic types of systematic approach first
would be like the naturalistic
observation real life so that's Jane
Goodall in the day and there's her
little chimpanzee I guess not really her
chimpanzee it's the chimpanzee out in
the wild and basically all I can do is
watch them I can't interact I can't do
anything with them I simply watch how
things happen in the real world and we
know how people say things happen versus
how things really happen can quite often
be very different so we don't want to
interfere in any way into what's
happening now Jane Goodall is probably
our most famous example of this but I
use this a lot in consumer psychology
and we'll talk a little bit more about
that in class structured observation
basically says that I'm going to give
some sort of scenario I'm going to do
something and what I'd like to see is
what happens after that so I give you
something and I want to see how people
interact and how people work together
and we'd like to see how that changes
behavior so I'm going to observe but I'm
gonna give a little structure to that
observation we also have what we call
sampling behaviors and so what we may do
is we give you a task and we look to see
what you do with that task so in this
case we're asking about a kid to measure
emotional reaction show which is a happy
face which is a sad face we have self
reporting and you've probably done this
at some
where somebody is sent to a survey and
they say would you please yo tell us how
you felt today eating food and you feel
that the survey it's not a bad thing the
problem with self reporting is how
accurate are you and again we may not be
as accurate as we think we do a lot of
psychological physiological measuring in
psychology for psychological concepts
and a lot of what we may do is be
measuring brainwave activities we may be
measuring pupil dilation because here we
can see physiological reactions to
development and to other processes now
we're going to be talking about
reliability and validity now these are
two words I want you to get into your
head pretty well reliability says are we
basically going to be getting the same
scores each time I mean a test isn't
very reliable if I take it one time and
I get one score and I take note I'm
gonna score
so think about something like the SATs
you know if you take it and one time you
get a 500 the next time you get a
thousand and then you go back to 600 how
reliable is that score and so we talk
about you know this is not reliable
right here and we're all over the place
now this one is reliable because look at
that we got four little spots right here
together but we're gonna say it's not
valid why because we want the middle of
this so validity says am I actually
measuring what I say I'm measuring am i
studying what I want to say so over here
we have something that that's valid you
know we are hitting all the target
that's no question about that but we're
not real reliable because again we're
all over the place so what we look for
in evaluating research methods is
something that's both reliable and valid
basically we're gonna be hitting the
middle we're gonna be close together in
those scores there's not gonna be much
difference and it's going to be on
target meaning is that it's going to be
talking about the things we wanted to
talk about so if we want to study how
smart somebody is giving them a race to
run to see how fast they can do it that
wouldn't be very valid to determine how
smart they were that determines how fast
they can run and yes maybe everyday they
can run this race and they get basically
the same score so the scores reliable
but it is a
valid and then we could do something as
I said with the SATs where we're getting
all these different scores and we're
like hey this isn't very reliable
because we keep getting different scores
but it could be valid because it is
measuring at that moment in time what
your ability to do something is we want
tests that do both we also need to make
sure you understand what a population is
versus a sample you know population is a
large group of people a sample may be a
subset of people so in this case
pregnant women that represent the
population now we can't go and find
every pregnant woman and test her so
we're going to use a small percentage of
those pregnant women and then we're
going to generalize out to the entire
population based on that sampling that
we got now we also got to talk about
that there are different types of
research developments and this is a big
one a correlation now the big thing is
that a correlation does not prove
causation
it shows relationships so it measures
how people score in two different
variables and basically what we're going
to be doing is looking at how two things
affect each other again if you haven't
heard this before you may want to go
back and listen to that lecture I have
from chapter one from introduction of
psychology we really kind of cover
correlations and depth there what we
bring into this one now that you
understand a little bit about
correlations is the fact that we're not
going to make those scatter grams every
single time because scatter grams after
a while they get a little hard to really
understand what's going on so we're
gonna be doing something called a
correlation coefficient now this is not
a statistics class so you don't have to
calculate a correlation coefficient but
you need to understand what the little R
means now a little R is basically the
symbol for correlation coefficient and
it can range between negative 1 and a
positive 1 it can never be smaller than
negative 1 it can never be larger than
positive 1 why here's a positive 1
notice that these dots are in a perfect
line and basically we make a line
straight through it it can't get any
more perfect than that and a perfect
negative 1 is just basically going the
opposite direction so we can't get any
more perfect
than that this one in the middle and our
would equal to 0 because there is no
gathering at all there's no commonality
to these at all there's no relationship
we would say now well we do have down
here is an example of a an r that's a
positive 6 in R that's a negative 6
again let's not assume that positive
means good and bad
it simply means the left or right is
zero so in this case notice that the
dots are a little bit further apart and
that means that there's maybe not as a
closer relationship here as there is
here this relationship is dead on if one
thing moves a quarter of an inch the
next one's gonna move a quarter of an
inch so great one to use for something
like this is to show something like
Fahrenheit and Celsius if something
measures in Fahrenheit and it goes up
you know two degrees it's gonna go up
two degrees in Celsius those things are
closely related down here we have the
same thing here we have two things that
are related but not exactly related but
pretty close so in this case it might be
how much we watch TV versus our grades
we would expect the more TV we watch the
further down our grades would get but we
might also want to relink the Stu
medication maybe if we take a certain
amount of medication we actually see the
number of symptoms going down so in that
case we'd like to see a negative
correlation between symptoms and
medication meaning is is we want to see
symptoms go down as we take more
medication so remember negative doesn't
always mean a bad thing in psychology
now with experimental design we are
talking about a cause-and-effect
relationship this is the only study that
gives us cause and effect between two
variables if I do this one thing what
will be the effect of that so we talked
about the fact that they were
independent dependent and extraneous
variables now your book basically just
talks about independent variables and
independent variables because again they
assume you understand what extremely as
variables are so remember that
independent variable is the thing that
we manipulate is the thing that we
expose to the condition whereas the
dependent variable is the outcome
there's always a numb
with a dependent variable and that's how
you always can find it the question that
we're always trying to ask is does the
independent variable affect the
dependent variable and if so how much
does it affect it so as an example let's
say that I would like to study the
effect of calories on weight loss so
what I'm going to do is have one subject
to eat 2,000 calories another subject to
eat 1500 calories and maybe another one
eat a thousand calories and that is my
independent variable is that the number
of calories we consume will be different
from person to person and they do this
for two weeks and at the end of two
weeks I then measure their weight the
score they get on the weight is the
dependent variable so let's say one
actually gains a pound the first one who
ate 2,000 calories the person who ate
1500 calories they don't lose anything
they're the exact same weight they were
person who ate a thousand calories they
actually lose two pounds so the
independent variable did affect the
outcome it did affect the dependent
variable and that's basically what
experimental design is always trying to
do another type of design we have is
called longitudinal studies and
basically what a longitudinal study is
is that we're going to study you over a
period of time maybe not over your whole
lifetime like this but what we'd like to
do is find out if something changes
throughout your lifetime our biggest
problem with the longitudinal studies is
that they are very expensive and very
time-consuming
think about this if I want to study from
birth to ten years of age doesn't that
take me ten years to do this study and
meanwhile lots of things could have
changed we also have a problem because
people tend to drop out of longitudinal
studies so over the long period of time
how many people will drop away from that
study
now with medicine we do a lot of
longitudinal studies because we can
begin to study how what is the effect of
medicine over a given period of time so
you can do something like a diabetic
who's going to be taking insulin pretty
much their lives depending which type of
diabetic they are and there we can look
at development over period
the problem will again launch to studies
though is that they are expensive
they're very time consuming and we may
lose people so to fix that we have
something called cross-sectional studies
now a cross-sectional study what we're
going to do is take a whole bunch of
subjects at the same time and we're
going to be dividing them up and looking
at some specific aspect so in this case
what we have is subjects from a
population so let's just say that these
are all oh we're gonna look at people
who are 18 years of age and we're gonna
look at people who are thirty years of
age and what we're gonna be looking at
is lung cancer and so we're going to
look at people are 18 who smoked and
versus people who don't smoke so we're
gonna take this one group of 18s and
we're gonna look at the risk faster than
the disease and then we're going to take
thirty year olds when I look at the risk
factor and the Z's and we do this all on
the same day so what we're assuming is
that the difference between the person
at 18 and their lungs if they're smokers
and 30 if they continue to smoke that
whatever whatever happened is going to
have happened because of the time that
was there so cross-sectional studies are
much cheaper we can do them at one point
but we do have the problem in that there
are different people so why one person
seems to smoke all their lives and not
develop lung cancer and another person
smokes for a little time and develops
lung cancer that's not going to be
answered we're making some
generalizations but again we can't
always wait 10 years to get an answer to
a study but at the same point our
problem with this one is that we have
different people we're looking at we're
making the assumption that this 18 year
old is going to be equal to this
different 30 year old to solve that we
have sequential studies and basically
what we're going to have is a series of
studies that are going to be done over a
period of time where we're doing both
cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
at the same time and so this sort of
gives you a chart of how complex a study
like this is now the word cohort we tend
to use that
here in psychology and people don't
always know what that is a core word is
a group of people of something that is
related so you hear the word baby-boomer
all the time you hear the word
Generation Y millennium babies the Xers
those are chords there's something that
connects them all together in this case
it would be age so what we have here is
in we're gonna be looking at the year of
birth so people were born in 1994 versus
people born in 1996 and what we're going
to do in the year 2000 is that we're
gonna look at six year olds and we're
gonna look at eight year olds and we're
gonna be comparing them so this is the
cross-sectional right here because we're
talking about six and eight that's a two
year difference but then we're going to
come back two years later and we're
gonna look at eight year olds and ten
year olds and again here we're doing
basically a cross-sectional because
we're doing two ages but we can also now
look at how did the eight year old here
versus the year old here is there any
difference and that would have happened
because the six year old grew up by two
years and that's the longitudinal sort
of study and then we're gonna do the
same thing here when they're ten and
twelve
now that means is that we've been able
to do this study now in far less time
we're able to do it in four years but we
got a lot of information so we hope that
usually in sequential designs that we're
going to be able to get the same
information that might have taken us ten
years to do by doing it in this type of
format and yet we're still gonna be able
to the same people to be able to measure
their seen when they're eight and ten
and ten and twelve to get that
longitudinal it is a lot more expensive
but most people really feel that this is
sort of the best design when we're
talking about development over time now
another that's become much more popular
is a meta-analysis and I bring
meta-analysis in because I see this a
lot happening again in medicine and we
have a lot of our students who are going
to the medical programs and as you read
things they say this meta-analysis
decide this and the meta-analysis
decided that so what's a meta-analysis
well here's an example of an actual
meta-analysis right here and we're
looking at a bunch of different studies
and that's what a meta-analysis is we're
gonna take multiple studies and we're
gonna
crunch all their data together now we
couldn't really do meta-analysis until
recently because we just didn't really
have the computers who could do that now
we have these computers that could
really crunch these data together so
here you can be looking at here's you
know one study the Green is a different
study each one of these colors are sort
of different studies and we can begin to
see if these variables are repeated over
time and we can begin to see sort of a a
look that happens across time with this
but this meta-analysis has really been
very good because it helps us to really
understand sort of a bigger picture of
what's going on now the problem with the
meta-analysis is that we're only using
second hand data we don't collect
anything new it's all based on old
research
so while meta-analysis are really nice
we also to remember that this data is
not fresh lastly what we like to talk
about is the process of communicating
our results and basically since we are
again talking about mostly in the
medical fields we're going to use what's
called a peer review process and what
happens is is that here a paper is going
to be written by somebody so I've done
some study I've now got some information
I'm going to write my paper and I'm
gonna submit it to a journal now
remember we're not talking about any old
journal here we're talking about a
peer-reviewed journal again if you need
to understand more about this go back
and listen to that lecture on chapter 1
introduction of psychology now what
happens here is that that's been
submitted over here to the editor
they're then gonna take that and they're
going to hand it out to a whole bunch of
people who are going to look at that
paper determine whether or not it's good
better different they're going to review
it for accuracy validity for reliability
procedures they're gonna make comments
and they're going to give that back to
the editor who's going to perhaps give
it back to the author and the author may
have to make some changes and this
process will keep going around now the
thing is is that we keep going around in
this until we feel that the science is
right when we feel the science is right
then and only then will it get published
in a peer
you'd journal now this becomes important
because when things are published in
peer-reviewed journals we tend to think
of them as being the best science at
least the most accurate science of the
time now it doesn't mean that it has it
won't change over time because we learn
things and we say oh here's the
information we had and this was the best
we knew at the time you know I like to
joke about the dinosaurs we apparently
had the wrong dinosaur heads on many a
dinosaurs for a very long time and we
had to go switch the dinosaur heads
somewhere in the 80s or 90s they figured
that out and yeah we should think that
the tails dragged on the ground the
dinosaurs and now we know the tails
probably were up and above the ground I
always wondered about that dragon on the
ground wouldn't it scrape it up but you
know we now know it's actually up and
they were walking so things do change
over time but peer-reviewed journals are
important because when something comes
out of a peer-reviewed journal we tend
to feel like it was the best science at
that time and that it wasn't just
somebody guessing so this isn't going to
come out in Time magazine or USA Today
this is gonna come out in something like
the Journal of American medicine or JAMA
and that's one of the ones that we hear
a lot so on the news quite often they'll
be reporting tomorrow in JAMA they're
going to publish this book and so what
they're reporting on is some information
that has been received tested and we now
believe is accurate this one ends up our
first chapter here in developmental
psychology I will see you in class and
have a good day
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