The Fascinating Evolution of Automotive Wiring

Summary

The script traces the evolution of automotive electrical systems over time, from the basic wiring in early 20th century cars like the Model T to the sophisticated digital systems in modern vehicles. It examines key innovations that advanced wiring and connectivity in cars, including improved insulation materials, crimped terminals, aviation-inspired connectors, multiplexed communications networks, and standards for emerging electric vehicle systems. The complex wiring harnesses and networks in today’s cars grew out of incremental enhancements in materials, manufacturing, and design over decades of automotive development.

Takeaways

• 📈 The Ford Model T's electrical system evolved over time from a minimalist starterless design to one incorporating more sophisticated components
• 🔌 Early automotive electrical systems used cloth-covered copper wiring and screw/solder terminals which were unreliable
• 💡 Bullet connectors were an early improvement, allowing quick connect/disconnect of wiring without soldering or screws
• 📏 Crimping terminals became popular in the 1930s as it was faster, more reliable and provided strain relief
• 🔌 Aviation influenced automotive electricals - adopting circular connectors and higher quality insulated wiring
• 🌡 New insulation materials like PVC were introduced to replace less flexible rubber and handle higher temps
• ⚙️ More vehicle electronics in the 50s-70s required multi-pin plastic connectors and dedicated engine wiring harnesses
• 🤝 Serial bus protocols over the 80s-90s enabled advanced diagnostics, multiplexing signals over fewer wires
• 🔋 Hybrid and electric vehicles have required new standards for high voltage systems, connectors and charging
• 📈 Small iterative changes over decades transformed basic automotive electrical systems into today's sophisticated networks

Q & A

What was the first mass-produced electrical system incorporated into the Model T Ford?

The first mass-produced electrical system in the Model T Ford consisted of basic wiring that integrated a magneto powered ignition system, lighting, a horn, a generator and battery combination that was used to primarily drive the starter motor.

How did early automotive electrical systems exhibit a trajectory towards growing sophistication and complexity?

Early automotive electrical systems grew more sophisticated and complex by incorporating components like starters, lighting, horns, generators and batteries over time. The Model T Ford launched with a minimalist configuration and gradually added more components found in modern vehicles.

What were some drawbacks of the cloth-covered wiring used in early automobiles?

Drawbacks of early cloth-covered wiring included deterioration over time leading to shorts and failures, less protection against abrasion and chemicals compared to modern wiring, bulky wire terminals prone to failure from vibration and heat, and susceptibility to contamination and corrosion.

How did crimping terminals help improve automotive wiring reliability?

Crimping terminals provided a quicker, more reliable method of connecting wires that avoided heat application, ensured consistent and uniform connections, retained flexibility near connections preventing fatigue cracks, and captured insulation providing strain relief.

When were multi-pin connectors first adopted in automotive wiring systems?

Multi-pin connectors were first adopted in vehicle wiring systems in the 1950s, when vehicles began incorporating more electrical components like radios, power windows and climate control systems, requiring complex wiring harnesses.

How did the use of computers and networking benefit automotive electrical systems?

The use of computers and networking allowed functions like diagnostics and communication between electronic modules. Multiplexing networks let multiple data channels share one physical channel efficiently.

What are some key differences between networks used for critical versus non-critical vehicle systems?

Critical systems like ABS and engine management require robust, low latency networks like CAN bus, while non-critical systems can use simpler, lower speed networks. Infotainment uses high speed networks to handle data rates.

How have standards facilitated development of electric vehicle technology?

EV standards define communication protocols, connectors, charging infrastructure to enable interaction between EVs and charging stations. Safety standards mitigate risks with high voltage systems.

What are some examples of gradual changes that advanced automotive electrical systems over time?

Changes like new connector and insulation materials, crimping and strain relief techniques, adoption of electronics and multiplexing led to today's sophisticated digital vehicle systems.

How can understanding measurement and analysis concepts help with learning about technology?

Grasping measurement and analysis builds intuition around quantifying information in meaningful ways, which helps unlock complex technical concepts across many fields.

Outlines

00:00

🤩 Early Automotive Electrical Systems

This paragraph provides an overview of early automotive electrical systems, focusing on the Ford Model T. It discusses the evolution of the Model T's electrical system over its production span, highlighting the use of cloth-covered copper wiring, stranded wire for flexibility, soldered ring terminals, and rubber insulation. Key aspects like system reliability challenges and trajectory towards complexity are noted.

05:02

⚡ Improving Durability and Reliability

This paragraph explores the improvements made to enhance durability and reliability of automotive wiring from the 1930s onwards. Key developments include bullet connectors for reduced failure points, crimped terminals for better connections, spacer terminals for tight spaces, and aircraft-inspired circular connectors for complex systems.

10:02

🔌 Revolutionary Plastic Insulation

This paragraph examines the revolutionary introduction of plastic wire insulation in the 1920s/30s and its superiority over previous materials. PVC is highlighted as an early popular choice, offering flexibility in manufacturing and broad temperature/voltage range, though some drawbacks like degradation and toxic fumes when burned are noted.

15:04

🤝 Multi-Pin Connectors for Complexity

This paragraph discusses the need for multi-pin connectors as vehicles incorporated more complex electrical systems like radios, wipers etc. The use of inexpensive plastic connectors with nylon shells, spade terminals and locking clasps is outlined, though their durability limitations compared to aviation connectors are acknowledged.

20:07

📡 Digital Networks and Multiplexing

This paragraph focuses on the proliferation of digital networks and multiplexing from the 1980s onwards to manage growing electronics complexity. CAN bus is highlighted as an industry standard for inter-module communication. The need for specialized wiring to handle digital signals is also examined.

Keywords

💡Electrical system

The electrical system refers to the wiring, lighting, ignition, and other electrical components in a vehicle. The video chronicles the evolution of automotive electrical systems from simple beginnings in the Ford Model T to increasingly complex and sophisticated systems in modern vehicles. Key innovations included stranded wiring, bullet connectors, crimping, and advanced insulation materials.

💡Multiplexing

Multiplexing refers to allowing multiple signals or streams of data to be transmitted over a single channel. As vehicles incorporated more complex digital systems, multiplexing was implemented to facilitate communication between electronic controllers and reduce wiring complexity. Standards like CAN bus enabled robust, conflict-free multi-master communication.

💡Insulation

Insulating vehicle wiring is essential for safety and performance. The video traces advances in insulation from early cloth and rubber to modern polymers like PVC and cross-linked polyethylene. Key properties include temperature/abrasion resistance, flexibility, and dialectric constants.

💡Connectors

Connectors are used to join wiring and components. From soldered terminals to threaded aviation connectors to weatherproof automotive multi-pin connectors, improving ease of assembly/disconnection and reliability were driving goals.

💡Diagnostics

Onboard diagnostics let technicians access control systems to identify issues. Multiplexing networks (CAN bus) enabled this but required expensive tools and training.

💡Electric vehicles

New standards are emerging around EV components like high-voltage cables/wiring and charging infrastructure as vehicles shift to electric power.

💡Stranded wire

Stranded wire (small wires bundled) was more durable for auto use compared to solid core wire. It resisted vibration better thanks to increased flexibility.

💡Crimping

Crimping terminals to wires ensured reliable, quick connections without soldering's drawbacks. It improved vibration resistance and provided strain relief.

💡Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

PVC plastic used as wire insulation beginning in WWII due to rubber shortages. Resisted wide temperature range and abrasion but had environmental issues.

💡Controller Area Network (CAN bus)

Robust serial protocol introduced in 1986 to enable multiple vehicle systems to communicate without conflict. Became industry standard for inter-module digital communication.

Highlights

Early automobiles used cloth-covered copper wiring which was flexible but prone to deterioration

Stranded wire was developed in the 1800s for applications needing flexibility and durability against vibration

Bullet connectors were an early connector system without fasteners, improving durability through vibration resistance

Crimping revolutionized connections by ensuring consistent, durable metal-to-metal contact without solder's rigidity

Circular connectors were adopted from aviation for their durability, ease of assembly, and replaceability

PVC wiring insulation was introduced in WWII, offering abrasion and chemical resistance at a low cost

Multi-pin nylon connectors enabled integration of new electronics like radios and climate control systems

Higher circuit complexity required dedicated signal wires and shielding against electromagnetic interference

Controller Area Network (CAN) bus improved reliability and noise immunity for digital communications

Multiplexing networks allowed multiple controllers to communicate, enabling telematics and diagnostics

High-bandwidth automotive networks use Ethernet or FlexRay as ADAS systems handle video data

Connecting EVs have led to new standards for communications, charging infrastructure, and safety

Despite shifts to electrification, wiring remains critical as improvements enable complex digital systems

Frequent small changes over decades established foundations for today's sophisticated vehicle electronics

Learning by problem solving, not just watching, is key - Brilliant courses unlock this through interactivity

Transcripts

this episode is brought to you by

brilliant this diagram represents the

first mass-produced electrical system in

human history it was incorporated into

the most common variants of the Model T

and it consists of basic wiring that

integrated a Magneto powered ignition

system lighting and the horn and a

generator and Battery combination that

was used to primarily Drive the starter

motor over its 19-year production span

with 15 million units produced the Ford

Model T's electrical system had evolved

drastically initially launched with a

starter lless minimalist configuration

it would gradually incorporate

components that can be found in the

electrical systems of modern vehicles

even from its early Beginnings

Automotive electrical systems exhibited

a clear trajectory towards growing

sophistication and

complexity early automobiles including

the Ford Model T used cloth covered wire

this type of wire consists of a copper

conductor insulated with a layer of

cloth material the cloth insulation was

typically made from cotton or a similar

fibrous material and impregnated with a

varnish or rubber to provide additional

protection against moisture and

wear while solid copper conductor wiring

was commonly used in the vast majority

of applications at the time Automotive

wiring was made of stranded wire

consisting of multiple small wires

stranded wire was developed in the late

1800s to address the limitations of

solid wire particularly in applications

requiring flexibility and durability

especially when exposed to vibration

cloth covered wiring impregnated with

rubber specifically proved to be ideal

for automotive use as its flexibility

made it easier to route through confined

and complex spaces these wiring

assemblies were typically connected to

components via a termination that

consisted of a a solder on ring terminal

that was fixed by screws with longer

spans of wiring being secured with metal

clips and even Stables this technique

was used even on high voltage ignition

wires fully rubber covered wire was also

developed as a more durable insulation

option and while it was Superior in

flexibility and insulative properties

over cloth-based variations rubber

insulation became brittle and cracked

over time especially when exposed to

heat heat light and certain

chemicals early automobiles were

notoriously unreliable and their

electrical systems greatly contributed

to this over time cloth insulation

deteriorated especially if exposed to

moisture in oils leading to a risk of

shorts and electrical failures cloth

insulation also offered less protection

against abrasion and chemical exposure

when compared to Modern insulation the

wine terminals used were bulky and

suffered from failure due to fatigue

caused by vibration and Heat heat

cycling this also caused Threaded

Fasteners to back out breaking

electrical connections these Junction

points were also susceptible to

contamination and corrosion further

diminishing

reliability in the 1930s bullet

terminals were one of the first Fastener

less connector systems to appear on

vehicles bullet terminals consists of a

male component the bullet and a

corresponding female component the

socket or sleeve into which the bullet

fits snugly these connectors are usually

made from soft Metals such as brass or

tin-plated brass which are chosen for

their good electrical conductivity and

resistance to corrosion the exterior of

the connector often features an

insulation sleeve made of vinyl or

rubber to protect the

connection a variant of the concept

called Spade terminals would also be

developed that permitted a connection to

be used in tighter spaces and harsher

physical

environments spay terminals consist of a

flat spade-shaped male connector that

places the mechanical connection to the

outer ends of the terminal via a

barrel-shaped spring light clamp on the

female end while the center of the

terminal forms the primary electrical

connection many versions also

incorporate a third Center locking

mechanism along the terminal's body for

a more positive connection particularly

in high vibration environments the

lowprofile nature of space terminals

allow them to be made into tighter reach

variations such as 90° flag style Spade

terminals the 1930s also saw the

introduction of crimping to terminate

wire terminals crimping involves

mechanically compressing a terminal

around a wire to ensure a metal toetal

contact it offers a quicker and more

reliable method for making connections

especially in production environments

where speed and repeatability are

essential it avoids the application of

heat and when done correctly provides

excellent mechanical strength and a high

degree of resistance to vibration and

pulling forces crimping also ensures a

consistent and uniform connection

reducing the risk of cold joints or

other soldering defects that can lead to

failures it also retains the full

flexibility of the wire near the

connection Point unlike soldering which

can create rigid sections that may be

prone to fatigue and cracking under

stress crimp terminated connections not

only made vehicle wiring far more

serviceable and cheaper to manufacture

but also dramatically increased

reliability through the inherent strain

relief they provided by capturing a

wire's insulation within a crimp the

stresses and strains placed on the cable

are prevented from being transferred to

the conductor dramatically reducing

freeing breaking or pulling out from the

terminal additionally strain relief is

also provided by any sleeves used on the

terminal

Junction towards the end of the decade

aircraft electrical systems were growing

so complex that single Junction

connections were becoming impractical

especially for military use electrical

Aviation components sometimes required a

dozen or more connections all of which

had to be easily disconnected for

service while remaining securely

connected in harsh environments this was

especially critical in combat

situations in the US aircraft

manufacturers would ultimately adopt a

solution that was traced back to the

early days of the motion piture industry

back in the 1920s Studio lighting

required a connector that could not be

accidentally disengaged this need was

met in 1925 with the introduction of a

receptacle and a plug with a mechanical

locking ring called the M series it was

developed by Robert Canon the founder of

Canon electric by the late 1920s

Paramount Studios developed its own

pseries connector for a new sound camera

that utilized a latched locking device

while Fox Studios would introduce its

own threaded coupling ring

variant from these Concepts the threaded

ring circular connector design was found

to be best suited for Aviation and would

be first used on the Douglas dc1

aircraft circular or cylindrical

connectors consist of two mating halves

or shell Each of which contains multiple

pins or socket configurations internal

insulating spacers initially made of

hard rubber support the contacts in

their proper orientation the plug end is

attached to a wiring bundle while the

receptacle is often mounted in a fixed

position such as on a panel or case the

plug consists of a barrel a coupling nut

and a backend termination the barrel

fits inside the receptacle shell and the

coupling nut holds the mated pair

together alignment of pins and sockets

must conform to rigid tolerances during

the manufacturing process in order to

avoid bending or breaking during

separation or closure of the two halves

wires are attached to the individual

contact pins by crimping or soldering

and are held in place by either an

interference lock a contact lock or an

insert lock the locking mechanism

determines how the pins are inserted the

shells were usually fabricated from

aluminum or steel and were extremely

rugged and were also polarized to

prevent mismatching and to make assembly

easier the success of these connectors

led to the United States Department of

Defense establishing military

specifications to create a supply of

standardized components with defined

housing dimensions and pin layouts

specifically designed and tested to

withstand the reliability performance

and environmental requirements of the

application for which they were intended

the first of these military

specifications was the a 9534 which

appeared on November 1st 1934 the

specification was superseded 2 years

later

bywc 591 which was was used with various

revisions for the duration of World War

II the growing importance of air power

during the war led to the establishment

of the US Air Force as a separate branch

of the military with a whole new set of

connector requirements in 1949 Mill c515

superseded AWC 591 and became the first

coordinated connector specification

approved for use by all three services

Army Navy and Air Force consider the

progenitor of all connector

specifications milc 515 covered a broad

range of pin contact sizes and voltages

up to 3,000 volt

AC the development and introduction of

synthetic polymers in the 1920s and

1930s marked a turning point for the

electrical industry as a whole Plastics

were found to offer Superior

characteristics over impregnated cloth

and even full rubber wire insulation it

was far more resistant to abrasion

electrical and thermal degradation and

unlike previous installations could be

chemically adapted to a broader range of

applications by altering its physical

properties one of the first and most

popular Plastics to be used for wire

insulation was polyvinyl chloride during

World War II PVC was introduced as a

replacement insulation for rubber as the

US lost access to 90% of the world's

natural rubber Supply its thermoplastic

properties made it very easy to

manufacture as it became more plastic

when heated and rigid again on cooling

it also allowed for the mixing in of

stabilizers plasticizers flame

retardants and lubricants to achieve a

broad range of properties PVC

instulation was designed to be resistant

to a wide range of temperatures from -4

de C to 125° C as well as to abrasion

moisture and Atmospheric agents

including UV rays it can also safely

insulate up to 1,000

volts PVC insulation however when

exposed to hydrocarbons and chlorinated

solvents can degrade or become brittle

leading to insulation failures it can

also become rigid and less flexible at

lower temperatures and when exposed to

fire PVC insulation produces thick black

smoke hydrochloric acid gas and it emits

dioxins which are highly toxic and can

cause health issues and environmental

damage during the 1950s Vehicles began

incorporating radios climate control

systems power windows wipers more

lighting and various other amenities

transforming vehicle wiring into its own

complex subassembly known as a chassis

wiring harness much like with Aviation

multi-pin connectors were needed but the

bulky and costly connectors used in

aviation were not viable for a consumer

product the solution came in the form of

the industry adopting its own range of

less costly plastic based multi-pin

connectors made from nylon these early

connectors were injection molded into a

pair of of rectangular mating shells

that housed Spade terminals that were

set in place by a contact lock on the

terminal body the shells were locked

together by a combination of friction

and a simple clasp that was captured in

an integrated aperture rubber boots were

often used to protect the connection in

exposed areas on a vehicle while these

connectors were far less durable and

were limited in terminal count when

compared to their Aviation counterparts

they were sufficient enough for

automotive use at the time over the next

two decades solid state Electronics

started to appear in vehicle electrical

systems initially within specialized

function components such as voltage

Regulators electronic fuel injection

drivers wipers and lamp and wiper

controls wiring harnesses were growing

denser and far more signaling and

sensing functionality became a part of

this new era of vehicles chassis wiring

harnesses were now designed using a

broad range of wire cross-section areas

insulation materials sheathing and

connector types to specifically

accommodate a section's application

while balancing cost and

reliability the mid 20th century also

saw the introduction of new wire

insulation materials based on propylene

polyethylene tetraethylene

hexafluoropropylene ethylene

tetraethylene polyurethanes polyesters

polyamides and synthetic rubbers that

all offered varying degrees of better

electrical characteristics greater

resistance to temperature abrasion and

hydrocarbons when compared to PVC with

some even allowing for thinner

insulation walls though these more

advanced insulations were used only when

needed due to

cost ethylene Tetra flu ethylene wire in

particular was adopted by Motorsports

alongside milspec circular connectors

due to its electrical properties

chemical inertness and exceptional

impact strength known as Tezel wire its

thin but tough insulation allowed for

less bulkier but extremely durable

wiring harnesses that could withstand

the extreme environments of

racing in the 1970s stricter fuel

efficiency regulations in the United

States forced car manufacturers to

improve engine efficiency and reduce

emissions when combined with the

exploration into the performance

benefits of fuel injection by European

manufacturers the progressive adoption

of electronic engine management systems

would occur over the next decade these

changes had a dramatic impact on wiring

complexity with electrical systems now

incorporating dozens of sensors and

control

mechatronics from this multi-pin

connectors were now capable of

containing up to 100 connections with

the pin and socket design becoming

standard similar to Aviation connectors

these use contacts made of precision

stamped and folded thin sheets of of

brass or copper Alloys that are formed

into cylindrical pins along with a

respective matching socket their mating

shells are generally rectangular though

more complex shapes are common with

equally various forms of integrated

keying for orientation pin and socket

connectors tend to use a combination of

contact locking and varying forms of

insert locking such as wedge locks this

was particularly important not just for

Positive Locking and ease of harness

assembly but also to distribute tension

forces evenly across the connector

body commonly made from either

polyamides polybutylene theerapat ABS or

nylon the Precision injected molded

shells employ one or more locking

mechanisms to secure the halves together

ranging from clasps to external locking

clips and even robust assembly Force

limiting locking mechanisms for larger

connectors much like their mspec

counterparts silicone or viton seals and

wire gaskets are also utilized to

weatherproof both The Mating and wire

termination end of the

connector with the proliferation of

digital engine management in the 1980s

chassis wiring harnesses now had to

contend with a new function the

transmission of digital signals and

highly susceptible analog sensor signals

this becomes problematic with relatively

inexpensive PVC insulations because of

its higher dialectric constant

dialectric constant indicates how

readily a material polarizes in an

electric field materials with a high

dialectric constants store more energy

but this can cause signal attenuation

and Distortion at high frequencies

additionally signal lines have to

operate in the electrically noisy

environments created by the ignition and

charging system and must be able to

handle cross talk from other Lines

within dense wiring

bundles to address address this wire

insulation materials such as

polyethylene and cross-link polyethylene

are favored for their low dialectric

constants offering minimal signal loss

at high frequencies for highly sensitive

signals such as in ABS sensors or nox

sensors signal lines are sheathed often

with grounded aluminum foil shielding to

mitigate the effects of electromagnetic

interference throughout the 1990s

computerization became integrated with

Automotive Electrical systems with

network topology slowly being adopted by

most

manufacturers in this model electronic

controllers were assigned to each

vehicle system and between them

multiplexing signal protocols allowed

for multiple channels of data to be

exchanged over a single physical

channel the First multiplex systems used

basic serial protocols derived from

Industrial Systems such as rs232 rs485

and rs s 422 these protocols rely on a

predefined fixed bit rate and some

connection management data to directly

transmit a stream of bits the simplest

form of this is known as single-ended

communication where a bit is represented

by a voltage level relative to ground

while this only requires a single signal

wire and is simple to implement its bit

rate is limited due to noise

susceptibility balanced serial

communication improves proves this by

using two signal wires that are often

Twisted together one carries a positive

signal and the other carries an inverted

signal any noise induced on the

transmission line affects both signals

equally allowing the receiver to

effectively cancel out the Noise by

subtracting the inverted signal from the

positive one this method improves noise

immunity and enables reliable faster

communication over longer distances when

compared to single-ended serial

communication in the the early 1980s

various Automotive serial communication

protocols emerged such as Kline line

j1850 which used pulse width modulation

and SE used by General Motors these

protocols facilitated Diagnostics and

intermodule communication but lacked

speed and

flexibility in 1986 controller area

network bus protocol or can bus was

released at the Society of Automotive

Engineers conference in Detroit

Michigan the developed by Bosch canbus

is known as a multimaster serial bus as

it permits multiple nodes to communicate

with each other over the same channel

robustly and without conflict canbus

employs two wires that carry opposite

bit States or a differential signal to

easily filter out noise the

specification also defines a messaging

protocol that encapsulates interm module

communication into frames with Advanced

features such as prioritized message

transmission and error detection by the

mid1 1990s it would be adopted by the

industry as the standard for in-vehicle

digital Communications with the standard

evolving over time to support higher

data rates and larger payloads by the

mid 2000s dozens of subsystems were now

common on vehicles with vastly different

requirements critical systems such as

ABS airbags traction control and engine

management require low latency robust

links while basic chassis electrical

systems can operate efficiently on low-p

speeded simpler Communications

infotainment systems in comparison

require High data rates but are not

critical because of this variability

modern vehicles Now operate multiple

networks with some even using fiber

optics to facilitate High data rates and

noise immunity a typical mid-2000s

vehicle configuration for example would

employ a can bus Network for critical

systems a single-ended low-speed serial

bus such as Lin for non-critical chassis

electrical control and human interface

and a fiber optic protocol such as most

for transmitting digital audio data

throughout an audio

system vehicle service and Diagnostics

has also benefited by the use of

multiplexing networks by allowing the

direct access to the control systems

within a vehicle from a singular

interface though this comes at the cost

of expensive diagnostic tooling training

and Reliance on manufacturers for

proprietary

Hardware as Advanced Driver assistance

systems or Adas began to appear in

vehicles high bandwidth links that are

capable of handling video data added a

new layer of vehicle networking two

common Technologies used for this are

standard ethernet adapted to vehicle use

and flexray high-speed deterministic bus

Network a can bus like system that is

designed for time critical applications

in

vehicles with the introduction of hybrid

and electric vehicles an entirely new

realm of evolving standards have emerged

that Encompass various aspects of EV

wiring including the design installation

and performance requirements of high

voltage wiring harnesses cables

connectors and Associated components

standards such as ISO

15118 IEC

62196 and IEC 61851 Define communication

protocols connectors and charging

infrastructure specifications to

facilitate seamless interaction between

EVs and charging stations additionally

standards like I 63110 and ISO

6469 establish safety requirements for

high voltage cables and electrical

systems in EVS to mitigate risks

associated with electrical

hazards the automotive industry is

experiencing a profound transformation

navigating the shift from traditional

combustion engines to electric power

while balancing performance and the

allore of driver experience with the

potential rise of autonomy however

despite this potential Paradigm Shift

one constant Remains the critical role

of wiring in

vehicles it's the little Progressive

changes over time that pushes an

industry forward the Automotive

Electrical industry is a perfect example

of this small changes in materials and

Designs over the decades laid the

foundation for the incredibly

sophisticated digital Vehicle Systems of

today and at the heart of any

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