The Medieval Islamicate World: Crash Course History of Science #7

Summary

This script explores the profound influence of Islamicate scholars on the advancement of knowledge in the Mediterranean and Western Asia. Highlighting the Abbasid Caliphate's role as a cultural crossroads, it delves into the establishment of the House of Wisdom and the Translation Movement, which systematically translated and expanded upon Greek, Persian, and Indian texts. The script underscores the contributions of polymaths like al-Khwarizmi and al-Jazarī in mathematics, astronomy, and engineering, showcasing the era's remarkable achievements in science, technology, and philosophy.

Takeaways

• 🕌 Islam had a profound influence on knowledge-making in the Mediterranean and western Asian regions, contributing terms such as 'algebra' and 'algorithm'.
• 📚 Islamicate scholars, influenced by Islamic civilization, were involved in the development of various scientific and philosophical disciplines.
• 🌏 The Abbasid Caliphate, a highly urbanized empire, served as a cultural and religious crossroads, fostering a cosmopolitan early Islamicate science.
• 📈 The Abbasid Caliphate's high literacy rate, due to the emphasis on the Qur'an, enabled a broad segment of the population to engage with scholarly texts.
• 🏛 Baghdad, the Abbasid capital, was home to the House of Wisdom, a significant library and center for translation and research.
• 🔄 The Translation Movement, supported by Caliph al-Maʾmūn, involved translating important texts from Greek, Chinese, Sanskrit, Persian, and Syriac into Arabic.
• 🌟 Islamicate scholars were not only translators but also wrote commentaries, analyzed, and expanded upon the works of foreign writers.
• 📘 The works of Aristotle were particularly influential among the scholars of Baghdad, with Ibn Rushd being a prominent commentator.
• 🛰️ Islamicate scholars made significant contributions to astronomy, with some proposing heliocentric models and improving astronomical handbooks.
• 📏 Caliph al-Maʾmūn commissioned a remarkably accurate measurement of the Earth's circumference, showcasing the precision of Islamicate geography.
• 🤖 The Banū Mūsā brothers and al-Jazarī were notable for their work on mechanical devices and automata, including the earliest programmable machine and water-powered perpetual flute.

Q & A

What was the significance of the term 'Islamicate' in the context of the script?

The term 'Islamicate' refers to people influenced by Islamic civilization, regardless of their religious views. It highlights the contributions of scholars under Islamic influence to various fields of knowledge, including the development of terms such as 'algebra' and 'algorithm'.

Who was Ibn Sina and why is he significant in the context of Islamicate medicine and philosophy?

Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, was a Persian polymath who made significant contributions to medicine and philosophy. The script mentions that he will be explored in future episodes, indicating his importance in the history of Islamicate science.

What was the Abbasid Caliphate and how did it influence the development of Islamicate science?

The Abbasid Caliphate was an eastern empire that existed from 750 to 1517, known for its urbanization and cultural diversity. It served as a crossroads for various cultures and religions, fostering a cosmopolitan environment that contributed to the development of Islamicate science through the blending of knowledge and ideas.

What role did the House of Wisdom play in the advancement of Islamicate science?

The House of Wisdom, located in Baghdad, was a significant center for translation and research. It started as a library from Caliph al-Mansur's private collection and grew to become the largest library in the world by 850. It was instrumental in the Translation Movement, which brought useful texts into Arabic from various languages.

What was the Translation Movement and why was it important?

The Translation Movement was an initiative sponsored by Caliph al-Maʾmūn to translate useful texts from Greek, Chinese, Sanskrit, Persian, and Syriac into Arabic. It was important because it facilitated the spread of knowledge and the development of new ideas in the Islamicate world.

How did the Abbasid Caliphate's approach to education and knowledge production contribute to the advancement of science?

The Abbasid Caliphate supported a high literacy rate due to the focus on the Qur’an, encouraged the study of natural philosophical texts, and promoted an egalitarian approach to knowledge production. This, along with the support of pious philanthropists, allowed for systematic study and advancement in various scientific fields.

What was the significance of the madrasas in the Islamicate world?

Madrasas were Islamic colleges that served as critical centers of knowledge transmission. They had their own libraries and offered education in law, Greek natural philosophy, logic, arithmetic, astronomy, and astrology, contributing to the intellectual development of the society.

How did Islamicate scholars contribute to the field of astronomy?

Islamicate scholars made significant contributions to astronomy by building observatories, refining astronomical handbooks called zīj, and even proposing heliocentric models of the solar system, which were based on observed data rather than Aristotelian theories.

What was the role of the Banū Mūsā brothers in the field of engineering?

The Banū Mūsā brothers wrote 'The Book of Ingenious Devices,' a compendium of one hundred devices and instructions on how to use them. They are known for their work in medieval automation, including the creation of the earliest programmable machine, 'The Instrument that Plays by Itself.'

Who was al-Jazarī and what are some of his notable inventions?

Al-Jazarī was a polymath who wrote 'The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices,' detailing one hundred machines with instructions on how to build them. His inventions included water wheels, watermills, various clocks, fountains, and musical automata. He is also credited with inventing the camshaft and the segmental gear.

How did the Islamicate world's approach to knowledge and science differ from the common misconception of the 'dark age'?

Contrary to the common misconception of a 'dark age' characterized by conflict and ignorance, the Islamicate world was marked by urban centers of trade and knowledge exchange. Scholars in this period were keen on building upon earlier insights from various origins, fostering a rich environment of scientific and intellectual growth.

Outlines

00:00

🌟 Islamicate Influence on Science and the House of Wisdom

The script explores the profound impact of Islamicate scholars on the development of science and knowledge in the Mediterranean and western Asian regions. It highlights the rapid expansion of Islamicate power post the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, leading to the establishment of two major political spheres. The Abbasid Caliphate, particularly, is noted for its urbanization and cultural crossroads, fostering a cosmopolitan early Islamicate science. The script introduces the Bayt al-Ḥikmah or House of Wisdom in Baghdad, a pivotal library and translation center initiated by Caliph al-Mansur and expanded by his successors, including al-Rashid and al-Maʾmūn. The Translation Movement, which translated crucial texts from various languages into Arabic, is emphasized, highlighting the Abbasid Caliphate's commitment to knowledge production and the systematic study of natural phenomena.

05:03

📚 The Translation Movement and Advancements in Islamicate Science

This paragraph delves into the specifics of the Translation Movement, which began with Persian texts on astrology and astronomy and expanded to include Greek scientific manuscripts. The movement, lasting from 750 to 950, led to the translation of virtually all Greek scholarly texts into Arabic, greatly enriching the libraries of the Islamicate world. The paragraph also discusses the influence of this translated knowledge on Islamicate scholars, such as Ibn Rushd, known as 'The Commentator' for his extensive commentaries on Aristotle. Furthermore, it touches upon the practical applications of this knowledge, such as improved timekeeping for mosques and more accurate prayer alignments, and the fostering of reasoned thought, particularly in the school of mu‘tazilism, which integrated rationalism into religious philosophy.

10:04

🔭 Innovations in Islamicate Science and Engineering

The final paragraph of the script shifts focus to the practical applications and innovations within the Islamicate world. It discusses the establishment of observatories, the refinement of astronomical handbooks, and the proposal of heliocentric models by scholars like al-Biruni. The script also highlights advancements in geography, with Caliph al-Maʾmūn's commissioning of a remarkably accurate measurement of the Earth's circumference. Turning to technology, it mentions the development of astrolabes and the contributions of engineers like the Banū Mūsā brothers and al-Jazarī, who created programmable machines and automata. The paragraph concludes by emphasizing the significance of these medieval inventions and the broader context of knowledge exchange and urban centers of trade, challenging the common misconception of a 'dark age' and instead presenting a vibrant era of scientific and intellectual growth.

Keywords

💡Islamicate

The term 'Islamicate' refers to the cultural milieu influenced by Islamic civilization, encompassing people and ideas regardless of religious beliefs. It is central to the video's theme as it highlights the cultural and intellectual diversity within the Islamic world, which significantly contributed to knowledge-making in various fields such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. For example, the script mentions 'Islamicate scholars' who gave us terms like 'algebra' and 'algorithm,' showcasing the blending of cultures and ideas.

💡Abbasid Caliphate

The Abbasid Caliphate was a highly urbanized Islamic state that existed from 750 to 1517. It played a pivotal role as a crossroads for various cultures and religions, fostering a cosmopolitan environment conducive to scientific and philosophical advancements. The video emphasizes its significance in early Islamicate science and its role in supporting the 'Translation Movement,' which brought a wealth of knowledge from different cultures into the Islamic world.

💡House of Wisdom

The House of Wisdom, or Bayt al-Ḥikmah, was a significant library and intellectual center in Baghdad. It symbolizes the Abbasid Caliphate's commitment to knowledge and learning, housing scholars and texts from various cultures. The script describes how it became the largest library in the world by 850, illustrating the video's theme of the Islamicate world's contribution to the accumulation and dissemination of knowledge.

💡Translation Movement

The 'Translation Movement' refers to the systematic effort to translate Greek, Persian, Indian, and other scholarly texts into Arabic. This movement is a key aspect of the video's narrative, highlighting the Islamicate world's openness to foreign knowledge and its role in preserving and expanding upon classical knowledge. The script mentions how this movement began with Persian texts on astrology and astronomy and eventually included the works of Aristotle.

💡Mu‘tazilism

Mu‘tazilism is a school of religious philosophy within the Islamic tradition that emphasizes the use of reason and rationalism to understand the physical world and God. It is related to the video's theme by illustrating the Islamicate world's engagement with Greek philosophical traditions and the integration of reasoned thought into religious discourse. The script describes how this school of thought emerged from the Translation Movement and the appreciation for reasoned debate.

💡Madrasas

Madrasas are Islamic colleges that served as critical centers of knowledge transmission. They are relevant to the video's theme as they represent the institutionalization of learning and the spread of knowledge within the Islamicate world. The script provides examples of the number of madrasas in Baghdad and Damascus, indicating their prevalence and importance in education and scholarly pursuits.

💡Al-Khwarizmi

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a medieval Islamicate scholar known for his work in mathematics, particularly in algebra. His book 'Kitab al-Jabr' laid the foundation for the field of algebra, which is integral to the video's exploration of the Islamicate world's contributions to mathematics. Al-Khwarizmi's work exemplifies the video's theme of intellectual innovation within the Islamicate tradition.

💡Astrolabe

An astrolabe is a mechanical device used by astronomers and navigators to determine the position of celestial bodies. It is mentioned in the script as an example of the technological advancements made by Islamicate scholars, who improved its design by adding the azimuth and integrating it with armillary spheres. The astrolabe exemplifies the video's theme of the Islamicate world's contributions to scientific instruments and observational astronomy.

💡Al-Jazarī

Al-Jazarī was a polymath known for his work on mechanical devices and automata. His book 'The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices' is highlighted in the script as a testament to the Islamicate world's achievements in engineering and technology. Al-Jazarī's inventions, such as the water-powered perpetually-playing flute and robot bands, underscore the video's theme of innovation and creativity in medieval Islamicate engineering.

💡Zero

The concept of 'zero' as a numeral and its place in the decimal system is a fundamental aspect of mathematics. The script mentions that Islamicate scholars adopted the number zero and decimal-style numerals from India, which became known as 'Arabic numerals.' This adoption is crucial to the video's theme, as it demonstrates the Islamicate world's role in the development and dissemination of mathematical concepts that are still in use today.

💡Al-Maʾmūn

Caliph al-Maʾmūn was a significant figure in the Abbasid Caliphate who sponsored the House of Wisdom and the Translation Movement. His patronage is central to the video's narrative, illustrating the support of scientific and philosophical endeavors by Islamicate rulers. The script describes his involvement in the daily operations of the House of Wisdom and his role in fostering a cosmopolitan intellectual environment.

Highlights

Islamicate scholars significantly influenced knowledge-making in the Mediterranean and western Asian world, contributing terms like 'algebra' and 'algorithm'.

Islamicate science was cosmopolitan and inclusive, with a high literacy rate due to Islam's focus on the Qur'an.

The Abbasid Caliphate, existing from 750–1517, was a crossroads for various cultures and religions, fostering a blend of ideas.

Baghdad, the Abbasid capital, became the largest urban area in the world by 930, housing the renowned House of Wisdom.

The Translation Movement, supported by Caliph al-Maʾmūn, brought useful texts into Arabic from various languages, significantly contributing to knowledge dissemination.

Astrology and astronomy were key areas of study, with Islamicate scholars proposing heliocentric models contrary to Aristotle's geocentric views.

Caliph al-Maʾmūn's support for translations was both a civic status symbol and practically beneficial for timekeeping and geographical knowledge.

The rise of mu‘tazilism, a school of religious philosophy, emphasized the use of rationalism to understand the physical world and God.

Madrasas, Islamic colleges, were critical centers of knowledge transmission, with libraries full of paper books.

Islamicate scholars wrote commentaries on translated texts, leading to new questions and advancements in natural philosophy.

Al-Maʾmūn's measurement of Earth's circumference was remarkably close to the modern value, showcasing advanced geographical knowledge.

Islamicate astronomers improved astrolabes, adding the azimuth and integrating them with armillary spheres for celestial body measurements.

Al-Khwarizmi's 'Kitab al-Jabr' laid the foundation for algebra, treating various numbers as similar objects ready for manipulation.

The Banū Mūsā brothers documented 'The Book of Ingenious Devices', featuring the earliest programmable machine.

Al-Jazarī's 'The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices' detailed one hundred machines, including water clocks and automata.

Al-Jazarī's inventions, such as the camshaft and segmental gear, laid the groundwork for modern mechanical engineering.

Islamicate engineers and scholars contributed to various fields, from hydraulic engineering to the creation of automatons.

The narrative of medieval Eurasia and North Africa as a 'dark age' is incorrect; it was a period of rich trade and knowledge exchange.

Transcripts

The religion of Islam significantly influenced knowledge-making in the greater Mediterranean

and western Asian world.

Islamicate scholars—meaning people influenced by Islamic civilization, regardless of their

religious views—gave us terms such as “algebra,” “azimuth,” “algorithm,” “alcohol,”

“alkali,” and “alembic.”

We’ll dive into Islamic medicine and philosophers such as the great Persian polymath Ibn Sina

in future episodes.

For now, let’s explore the beginnings of Islamicate natural philosophy.

[Intro Music Plays]

Islamicate power expanded rapidly after the Prophet Muhammad’s death in CE 632.

What began as one vast Arab-governed state soon fractured into two spheres of political

influence: a western one centered in southern Spain, with a capital at Córdoba, and an

eastern one including the great cities of northern Africa as well as Arabia and Mesopotamia.

This eastern empire, the highly urbanized Abbasid Caliphate,

existed in some form, increasingly fragmented, from 750–1517.

The Abbasid Caliphate was a crossroads or trading zone for Persian, Indian, and Byzantine

cultures, as well as for the religions of Islam, Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism.

Many languages flourished across the Abbasid Caliphate, as they did in the Emirate of Córdoba.

This blend of cultures and belief systems made early Islamicate science cosmopolitan—that

is, generally inclusive in character.

A high literacy rate thanks to Islam’s focus on the Qur’an meant that many people—well,

noble men, at least—could study natural philosophical texts.

Further, Islam-the-religion called on its adherents to treat others as equals, helping

make Islamicate knowledge production more egalitarian.

And ongoing support by pious philanthropists including heads of states allowed Islamicate

polymaths to study natural phenomena systematically.

Baghdad, the first Abbasid capital, was founded

by its second caliph, al-Mansur, in 754.

A sprawling metropolis quickly grew up around the original, carefully planned city.

And Baghdad became the largest urban area in the world by 930, with a population of

one million.

Key for our story today: Baghdad housed the Bayt al-Ḥikmah or House

of Wisdom.

This great library grew out of al-Mansur’s private collection, which he opened up to

visiting scholars, including delegations from India.

Al-Mansur’s successor, Caliph al-Rashid, carried on this tradition.

Al-Rashid also supported the Translation Movement, which we’ll get to shortly.

But first, let’s reflect on his rule as a great example of the cosmopolitan character

of the early Abbasids.

Charlemagne sent a mission from France to al-Rashid’s court in 799 with gifts.

So in 802, al-Rashid sent Charlemagne an embassy including an elephant named Abul-Abbas and

a water clock that featured clockwork knights who emerged once per hour.

You could see the elephant’s journey as one origin of veterinary science: the Abbasid

diplomats kept the elephant healthy walking from India to Baghdad to France, and it lived

for years after in captivity.

And, to the Franks, the water clock was simply mind-blowing, something they’d never even

imagined!

But it was al-Rashid’s successor, Caliph al-Maʾmūn, who in 832 refounded

the House of Wisdom specifically as an international center for translation and research.

Al-Maʾmūn was involved in the House’s daily operations, and he sponsored knowledge

production programmatically, inspiring his successors to do the same.

By 850, the House of Wisdom had become the largest library in the world.

Al-Maʾmūn sponsored families of scholar–translators

to bring useful texts into Arabic from Greek, Chinese, Sanskrit, Persian, and Syriac.

This should be known as the “Useful Texts into Arabic Movement” but, for some reason,

is called the Translation Movement instead.

This movement began with Persian texts concerning astrology and astronomy.

Remember that, across the ancient and medieval worlds, astronomy was the study of the heavens,

and astrology the study of the influence of heavenly bodies on earthly matters.

While both were studied, astrology was seen as more useful.

After texts about the stars, the translators moved onto others.

To feed this program, al-Maʾmūn sent emissaries to collect Greek scientific manuscripts from

the Byzantines—and began demanding them as loot in war.

The Translation Movement lasted from roughly 750–950.

By 950, virtually every Greek scholarly text had been translated multiple times, and the

libraries were brimming.

Many translators of Baghdad particularly fell for the works of Aristotle.

One of the greatest Islamicate philosophers, Ibn Rushd, is sometimes called

“The Commentator,” meaning the number-one Aristotle fan.

To this day, more classical Greek commentaries on Aristotle may be available in Arabic than

English!

Why was Caliph al-Maʾmūn so into the Persian and Greek science?

For one, supporting translations was a sign of civic status, and a worthy cause.

Al-Maʾmūn also saw scientific translation as highly practical.

For example, a better understanding of astronomy led to more accurate official timekeeping

for mosques.

And improved geographical knowledge helped more accurately align prayers to Mecca.

The Translation Movement also fostered a strong appreciation for reasoned thought, at least

among the ruling and scholarly classes.

This rubbed off on religious philosophy, giving rise to the school of mu‘tazilism.

Mu‘tazila such as al-Maʾmūn believed that rationalism could be used to understand both

the physical world and God.

They brought the Greek tradition of reasoned debate about the nature of the cosmos into

an Islamicate social context, looking beyond a literal reading of the Qur’an for sources

of knowledge.

In fact, places of learning under the Abbasid

Caliphate included observatories, hospitals, and public libraries, as well as mosques and

madrasas, or Islamic colleges.

Madrasas were critical centers of knowledge transmission.

There were thirty in Baghdad in the 1200s, and one hundred and fifty in Damascus by 1500.

Each madrasa had its own library full of paper books.

Paper had been introduced to western Asia from China, and paper factories appeared in

Samarkand, Baghdad, Cairo, Morocco, and finally in Spain by 1150.

While they were religious centers, madrasas were also places where students could learn

law as well as Greek natural philosophy, including logic and arithmetic, astronomy, and astrology.

Abbasid scholars didn’t merely translate

foreign writers.

In translating the texts, these polymaths wrote commentaries on them, comparing, summarizing,

and analyzing them.

Even when motivated by utilitarian concerns,

the work of careful reading and comparison led many scholars to pursue new questions

in natural philosophy.

For example, observatories arose throughout the Islamicate world.

Al-Maʾmūn built two observatories, one in Baghdad and another outside Damascus.

At these sites, scholars refined astronomical handbooks, called zīj, that helped

fix prayer times.

In fact, by the late ninth century, Islamicate polymaths such as Abu Maʿshar,

the famous Persian physician al-Razi —whom we’ll meet again soon—and the Indian-influenced

al-Biruni were even proposing heliocentric models of the solar system.

Their theories went against Aristotle but with observed data!

In geography, Islamicate scholars extended Ptolemy’s system.

Our scientific hero today, Caliph al-Maʾmūn, commissioned a measurement of earth’s circumference

that was pretty amazing: two groups ventured into the desert, finding a specific location

by following the stars.

One group walked north and the other south, tracking the stars for one degree.

They counted their paces.

Then they walked back, remeasured, averaged the measurements… and multiplied by 360

to derive a circumference of 24,480 miles.

The modern measurement?

24,901—less than 2% more accurate than the one made by al-Maʾmūn’s team.

And don’t get me started on astrolabes!

You know—mechanical devices used for measuring incline by astronomers and navigators?

To determine the position of celestial bodies in the night sky?

The ones Islamicate astronomers improved by adding the azimuth, or direction of compass

bearing?

And then merged with armillary spheres, or models of the entire cosmos constructed from

rings and hoops that revolved on their axes, around 900?

And then improved into geared mechanical astrolabes in 1235?

I’m looking at you, Abi Bakr of Isfahan!?

MEANWHILE—back at the House of Wisdom…

In addition to translation and improvement on Greek natural philosophy, scholars were

also innovating in new realms.

In mathematics, medieval Islamicate scholars focused on arithmetic and algebra.

They adopted the number zero and the “Arabic” decimal-style numerals from India, using them

so much that they became known to us as, well, Arabic.

They also developed trigonometry.

One example of this work in particular jumps out: in 820, at the House, Muhammad ibn Musa

al-Khwarizmi wrote Kitab al-Jabr,

or The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing, an original manual

of practical math.

Al-Khwarizmi wasn’t the first to work on algebra, but he set out the general rules

for solving equations that was highly influential for centuries.

Algebra introduced a theory that treated rational numbers, irrational numbers, geometrical magnitudes—all

numbers—as similar objects, ready to be manipulated.

Or, as my dude himself says it: “When I consider what people generally want in calculating,

I found that it always is a number.”

Mic drop!

This opened up the possibility of exploring new areas of mathematics such as algorithms,

quadratic equations, and polynomial equations.

Also at the House of Wisdom, thinkers such as Mohammad Mūsā worked on the basic laws

of physics.

Others focused on optics, performing many experiments.

And doctors and philosophers trained and traded works.

But what about the engineers—the scholars working on technē instead of epistēmē?

The Abbasid state privileged public service

and the interests of the state, focusing on improving useful arts such as hydraulic engineering

and agricultural science.

The Abbasids used the arch, rather than the Greek post and lintel system.

And they constructed large dams, waterwheels, and qanats, or underground channels

to tap groundwater.

Abbasid technology thus resembled that of the Romans, with craftspeople, not scholars,

typically building actual stuff.

But a few stand-out engineers from this time period created wonders so—er—wondrous,

that they deserve a little attention from ThoughtBubble:

In 850, at the House of Wisdom, the Banū

Mūsā brothers—Mohammad, just mentioned, and Ahmad and Hasan—wrote

The Book of Ingenious Devices:

a compendium of one hundred devices and how to use them.

This included the earliest programmable machine, “The Instrument that Plays by Itself.”

Medieval automation, whaaat!?h And it gets cooler.

In 1206—far from Baghdad, in what is now Diyarbakır, Turkey—the

polymath al-Jazarī wrote an even more amazing book on machines: The Book

of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices also covers one hundred machines, with instructions

on how to build them.

Most of these are trick vessels, but others include water wheels, watermills, a giant

water clock, elephant- and castle-shaped clocks, fountains improving upon designs by the Banū

Mūsās, a candle clock, and musical automata.

Al-Jazarī even designed a water-powered, perpetually-playing flute!

How did these devices work?

Well, it helped that al-Jazarī invented the camshaft, which would make it into Europe

by the 1300s, an early version of the crankshaft, and the segmental gear.

You can look up how these work online, but the point is: our modern world runs on them,

and this guy figured them out in medieval times.

That is so.

Dang.

Cool.

But the coolest of al-Jazarī’s inventions were his full-on automata—medieval robots.

He made humanoid machines including one that could serve water or tea.

He made a flushing toilet with a nearby servant, who refilled the basin when flushed.

And the pièce de résistance: al-Jazarī constructed a four-piece robot band that floated

on a lake, entertaining party guests.

The music?

Most likely programmable, using tiny pegs and levers.

Thanks Thought Bubble!

We could spend several more episodes on science in the early Islamicate world.

And we will come back to some of the people and themes mentioned today.

There’s a common understanding of the history of medieval Eurasia and North Africa long-held

by many English speakers is just plain wrong: instead of a “dark age” defined by conflicts

between Muslims and Christians who didn’t understand one another, we encounter urban

centers of trade and knowledge exchange populated by natural philosophers with a keen desire

to build upon earlier insights regardless of their origins.

Next time—we’ll build many cities and one very long canal in the rich Middle Kingdom,

China.

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Montana and it’s made with the help of all this nice people and our animation team is

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