Aristotle & Virtue Theory: Crash Course Philosophy #38

Summary

This script explores Aristotle's virtue ethics, emphasizing character over rules for moral behavior. Virtue is described as the 'Golden Mean' between vices, guiding actions like courage and honesty. Virtue is acquired through habituation and emulating moral exemplars, leading to eudaimonia—a life of flourishing and continuous self-improvement. The script challenges the viewer to consider the pursuit of virtue as the path to personal excellence and true happiness.

Takeaways

• 😀 Virtue theory emphasizes character over specific rules, focusing on becoming a good person so that right actions follow naturally.
• 👍 According to Aristotle, being virtuous involves hitting the 'Golden Mean,' the perfect midpoint between two extremes of excess and deficiency.
• 🤔 Courage, for instance, is the balance between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess).
• 📚 Virtue is considered a skill that can only be learned through experience and practical wisdom, not from books.
• 👥 Moral exemplars are people who already possess virtue and can serve as role models for others to emulate.
• 🏅 Eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of virtue, representing a well-lived life characterized by human flourishing and continual self-improvement.
• 🌳 Aristotle believed that humans, like acorns becoming oak trees, have a natural drive to become virtuous.
• 🛠️ Practical wisdom (or street smarts) is key to knowing how to act virtuously in various situations.
• 💬 Virtuous honesty means knowing how to deliver hard truths gracefully, avoiding both brutal honesty and silence when criticism is needed.
• 💡 Virtue theory suggests that by continually practicing virtuous actions, they will eventually become ingrained in one's character, leading to consistent good behavior.

Q & A

What is the main idea of virtue theory as described by Aristotle?

Virtue theory, as described by Aristotle, focuses on character development rather than following specific rules. It posits that by cultivating good character traits, right actions will naturally follow, making the individual virtuous without the need for a rulebook.

What is eudaimonia and how does it relate to virtue theory?

Eudaimonia is a Greek term often translated as 'a life well lived' or 'human flourishing.' In virtue theory, it represents the ultimate goal of living a virtuous life, which leads to personal fulfillment and happiness derived from achieving difficult tasks and continuously improving oneself.

How does Aristotle define the 'function' of humans in the context of virtue theory?

Aristotle defines the function of humans as proper functioning, which includes growing, being healthy, and being fertile, as well as using reason and getting along with others, given that humans are rational and social animals.

What is the Golden Mean in Aristotle's virtue theory?

The Golden Mean in Aristotle's virtue theory is the midpoint between two extremes, representing the just-right amount of a virtue. It is the balance between excess and deficiency, which leads to predictably good behavior.

How does Aristotle view courage in the context of virtue?

Aristotle views courage as the midpoint between cowardice (a deficiency of courage) and recklessness (an excess of courage). A courageous person assesses a situation and takes action that is right for that particular context, which may involve intervening or seeking help.

What is the role of moral exemplars in learning virtue according to Aristotle?

Moral exemplars, according to Aristotle, are individuals who already possess virtue. We are naturally inclined to recognize these individuals and have the desire to emulate them. By observing and imitating their behavior, we can learn to develop our own virtues.

How does Aristotle describe the process of becoming virtuous?

Aristotle describes the process of becoming virtuous as one of habituation. By repeatedly performing virtuous actions, they eventually become ingrained in one's character, leading to the development of robust character traits that manifest as virtue.

What is practical wisdom in the context of Aristotle's virtue theory?

Practical wisdom, in Aristotle's virtue theory, is a kind of knowledge that comes from experience and is akin to 'street smarts.' It is the ability to make sound judgments and take appropriate actions in various situations, which is developed through experience and learning from moral exemplars.

How does virtue theory differ from other moral theories like the categorical imperative or the principle of utility?

Unlike other moral theories that focus on specific rules or principles to determine right actions, virtue theory emphasizes the development of good character. It suggests that by focusing on becoming a good person, the right actions will naturally follow, without the need for a rulebook.

What is the connection between virtue theory and natural law theory?

Virtue theory and natural law theory share some similarities, such as the idea that humans have a fixed nature and that living according to this nature leads to flourishing. However, while natural law theory often involves a divine plan, virtue theory focuses on nature and human development without necessarily invoking a divine influence.

How does Aristotle's view on virtue relate to the idea of 'finding the right way to act'?

Aristotle's view on virtue is closely tied to the idea of 'finding the right way to act' by assessing the situation and taking action that is appropriate for that context. Virtue, in this sense, is not about rigid rules but about having the wisdom and judgment to act appropriately in various situations.

Outlines

00:00

🧘 Virtue Theory and the Pursuit of Eudaimonia

This paragraph introduces virtue theory, a moral philosophy that emphasizes character development over rule-following. It explains Aristotle's belief in virtuous individuals who instinctively know how to act rightly, without the need for a rulebook. Virtue theory is based on the concept of eudaimonia, or 'a life well lived,' which is achieved by adhering to one's nature and functioning properly. Aristotle described the 'Golden Mean,' a balance between vices of excess and deficiency, as the essence of virtue. The paragraph also touches on the idea that humans have an innate desire to be virtuous, akin to the natural growth of an acorn into an oak tree, and that virtues are character traits that lead to good behavior once developed.

05:02

🤔 The Practicality of Virtue and the Role of Moral Exemplars

In this paragraph, the concept of virtue is further explored, focusing on its practical application in life. Virtue is likened to a skill or 'practical wisdom' that is best learned through experience rather than from books. Aristotle suggests that virtues are habits formed by repeated actions, and that moral exemplars, or individuals who embody virtue, serve as models for others to emulate. The process of becoming virtuous involves observing and mimicking these exemplars, which over time, ingrains virtuous actions into one's character. The ultimate goal of this virtuous living is eudaimonia, a state of human flourishing that involves continuous self-improvement, striving, and the experience of deep satisfaction from personal achievements, despite the inevitable challenges and setbacks along the way.

Keywords

💡Virtue

Virtue refers to a set of moral excellences or character traits that lead to good behavior. In the context of the video, Aristotle's virtue theory suggests that focusing on being a good person with virtues like courage and honesty will naturally result in right actions. For example, courage is a virtue that involves finding the right way to act in a given situation.

💡Eudaimonia

Eudaimonia is a Greek term often translated as 'human flourishing' or 'a life well lived.' It represents the highest human good in Aristotle's philosophy, achieved through living virtuously. The video explains that living a life of eudaimonia involves striving for excellence and pushing oneself to achieve difficult goals, resulting in deep satisfaction and fulfillment.

💡Golden Mean

The Golden Mean is the desirable middle ground between two extremes, excess and deficiency. Aristotle's concept of the Golden Mean suggests that virtue lies at this midpoint. For instance, courage is the mean between cowardice (deficiency) and recklessness (excess). The video uses this concept to illustrate how virtues operate as balanced traits.

💡Practical Wisdom

Practical wisdom, or 'phronesis,' refers to the ability to make the right decision in varying situations based on experience and moral insight. In the video, practical wisdom is described as akin to street smarts, emphasizing that virtue is learned through practice and habituation, not just theoretical knowledge.

💡Moral Exemplar

A moral exemplar is a person who already possesses virtue and serves as a role model for others. The video explains that according to Aristotle, individuals learn virtue by observing and emulating these moral exemplars, gradually developing virtuous habits through imitation and practice.

💡Character

Character refers to the set of qualities and traits that define a person's moral and ethical nature. In virtue theory, developing a virtuous character is key to ensuring that one's actions are consistently good. The video emphasizes that focusing on building a virtuous character will lead to right actions naturally.

💡Proper Functioning

Proper functioning refers to the idea that everything has a function it is meant to fulfill, and its goodness is determined by how well it performs this function. For humans, proper functioning involves both physical and rational aspects. The video uses this concept to explain how virtue aligns with fulfilling one's nature as a rational and social animal.

💡Cowardice

Cowardice is the deficiency of courage, characterized by excessive fear and avoidance of risks. The video contrasts cowardice with recklessness to explain Aristotle's view of courage as the mean between these two extremes. A courageous person acts with the right amount of bravery, avoiding both cowardice and recklessness.

💡Recklessness

Recklessness is the excess of courage, characterized by taking unnecessary risks without proper consideration. In the video, recklessness is used to illustrate how virtue lies in the balance between too much and too little of a trait. For example, true courage avoids the extremes of both recklessness and cowardice.

💡Generosity

Generosity is a virtue that involves giving to others in the right way and amount. The video explains that true generosity avoids the vices of stinginess (deficiency) and extravagance (excess). It involves giving when it is appropriate and to those in need, without overextending oneself or enabling harmful behavior.

Highlights

Aristotle believed in the existence of virtuous individuals who have mastered the art of being a person.

Virtue theory focuses on character development rather than following specific rules for moral actions.

Aristotle's moral theory suggests that by focusing on being good people, the right actions will follow naturally.

Eudaimonia, or 'a life well lived,' is the ultimate goal of virtue theory, representing human flourishing.

Aristotle described proper functioning as fulfilling the inherent nature or function of a thing, including humans.

Humans are described as 'rational animals' and 'social animals,' with functions that include using reason and social interaction.

Aristotle's thoughts on virtue influenced later theories such as Aquinas' natural law theory.

Virtue is defined as acting rightly, with the right amount, at the right time, and toward the right people.

Virtue is seen as the midpoint between two extremes, known as the Golden Mean, avoiding both excess and deficiency.

Courage, as a virtue, is the balance between cowardice and recklessness, requiring situational assessment.

Honesty in virtue theory is the midpoint between brutal honesty and withholding necessary truths.

Generosity as a virtue avoids both stinginess and excessive giving, finding the just-right amount.

Aristotle believed virtue is a skill that can be learned through experience and habituation.

Practical wisdom, akin to street smarts, is a form of knowledge that guides virtuous actions through experience.

Moral exemplars serve as role models for learning virtue by observing and emulating their behavior.

Virtue, when fully realized, becomes an effortless manifestation of character in response to situations.

Eudaimonia represents a life of striving and pushing oneself to achieve personal bests, with virtue as a key component.

Aristotle's virtue theory emphasizes the continuous pursuit of self-improvement and moral excellence.

Transcripts

Imagine a person who always knows what to say.

Who can diffuse a tense situation, deliver tough news gracefully, is confident without being arrogant, brave but not reckless, generous but never extravagant.

This is the type of person that everybody wants to be around, and to be like.

Someone who seems to have mastered the art of being a person.

This may sound like an impossible feat, but Aristotle believed that, while rare, these people do exist.

And they are what we all should aspire to be: virtuous.

And there's a whole moral theory based on this idea of virtue.

But unlike most of the moral theories we’ve discussed, virtue theory doesn’t spend a lot of time telling you what to do.

There’s no categorical imperative or principle of utility.

Instead, virtue theory is all about character.

Rather than saying, “follow these rules so that you can be a good person,” Aristotle and other virtue theorists reasoned that, if we can just focus on being good people, the right actions will follow, effortlessly.

Become a good person, and you will do good things. No rulebook needed.

So, why should you be a virtuous person?

Because: eudaimonia.

[Theme Music]

Virtue theory reflects the ancient assumption that humans have a fixed nature – an essence – and that the way we flourish is by adhering to that nature.

Aristotle described this in terms of what he called proper functioning.

Everything has a function, and a thing is good to the extent that it fulfills its function, and bad to the extent that it doesn’t.

This is easy to see in objects created by humans.

A function of a knife is to cut, so a dull knife is a bad knife.

And a function of a flower is to grow and reproduce, so a flower that doesn’t do that is just bad at being a flower.

And the same goes for humans – we’re animals – so all the stuff that would indicate proper functioning for an animal holds true for us as well – we need to grow and be healthy and fertile.

But we’re also “the rational animal,” and a social animal, so our function also involves using reason and getting along with our pack.

Now you might notice that some of this sounds like parts of natural law theory – Aquinas' theory that God made us with the tools we need to know what’s Good.

Well, Aristotle had a strong influence on Thomas Aquinas, so part of Aristotle’s thoughts on virtue ended up in natural law theory.

But for Aristotle, this isn’t about God’s plan, it’s just about nature.

Aristotle argued that nature has built into us the desire to be virtuous, in the same way that acorns are built with the drive to become oak trees.

But what exactly does it mean to be virtuous?

Aristotle said that having virtue just means doing the right thing, at the right time, in the right way, in the right amount, toward the right people.

Which sort of sounds like Aristotle is saying exactly nothing.

I mean, how vague can you be?

But according to Aristotle, there's no need to be specific, because if you’re virtuous, you know what to do.

All the time.

You know how to handle yourself and how to get along with others.

You have good judgment, you can read a room, and you know what's right and when.

Aristotle understood virtue as a set of robust character traits that, once developed, will lead to predictably good behavior.

You can think of virtue as the midpoint between two extremes, which Aristotle called vices.

Virtue is the just-right amount – the sweet spot between the extreme of excess and the extreme of deficiency.

And this sweet spot is known as the Golden Mean.

So let’s take a look at some particular virtues, starting with courage.

What is courage?

To take a closer look at this, let’s head to the Thought Bubble for some Flash Philosophy.

Walking home from a movie, you see a person being mugged.

What is the courageous action for you to take?

Your impulse might be to say that a courageous person would run over there and stop the mugging, because courage means putting yourself in harm's way for a good cause, right?

Well, no.

A virtuous person – in the Aristotelian sense – would first take stock of the situation.

If you size up the mugger and have a good reason to believe that you could safely intervene, then that's probably the courageous choice.

But if you assess the situation and recognize that intervention is likely to mean that both you and the victim will be in danger, the courageous choice is not to intervene, but to call for help instead.

According to Aristotle, courage is the midpoint between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness.

Cowardice is a deficiency of courage, while recklessness is an excess of courage – and both are bad.

Aristotle said that you definitely can have too much of a good thing.

So, being courageous doesn’t mean rushing headlong into danger.

A courageous person will assess the situation, they’ll know their own abilities, and they’ll take action that is right in the particular situation.

Part of having courage, he argued, is being able to recognize when, rather than stepping in, you need to find an authority who can handle a situation that's too big for you to tackle alone.

Basically, courage is finding the right way to act.

And a lot of the time – but not all of the time – that means doing a thing that you know you’re capable of, even if doing it scares the pants off of you.

Thanks, Thought Bubble!

Aristotle thought all virtue works like this.

The right action is always a midpoint between extremes.

So, there’s no all-or-nothing in this theory – even honesty.

In this view, honesty is the perfect midpoint between brutal honesty and failing to say things that need to be said.

Like, no one needs to be told that they have a big zit on their face – they already know.

The virtue of honesty means knowing what needs to be put out there, and what you should keep quiet about.

And it also means knowing how to deliver hard truths gracefully.

How to break bad news gently, or to offer criticism in a way that’s constructive, rather than soul-crushing.

The virtue of generosity works the same way.

It avoids the obvious vice of stinginess, but also doesn’t give too much.

It’s not generous to give drugs to an addict, or to buy a round of drinks for everyone in the bar when you need that money for rent.

The just right amount of generosity means giving when you have it, to those who need it.

It can mean having the disposition to give just for the heck of it, but it also means realizing when you can’t, or shouldn’t give.

So now you can see why Aristotle’s definition of virtue was totally vague – where that Golden Mean is depends on the situation.

But, if you have to figure out what virtue is in every situation, how can you possibly ever learn to be virtuous?

Aristotle thought there was a lot that you could learn from books, but how to be a good person was not one of them.

He said virtue is a skill, a way of living, and that’s something that can really only be learned through experience.

Virtue is a kind of knowledge that he called practical wisdom.

You might think of it as kind of like street smarts.

And the thing about street smarts is that you gotta learn ‘em on the street.

But the good news is, you don’t have to do it alone.

Aristotle said your character is developed through habituation.

If you do a virtuous thing over and over again, eventually it will become part of your character.

But the way you know what the right thing to do is in the first place, is by finding someone who already knows, and emulating them.

These people who already possess virtue are moral exemplars, and according to this theory, we are built with the ability to recognize them, and the desire to emulate them.

So you learn virtue by watching it, and then doing it.

In the beginning, it'll be hard, and maybe it’ll feel fake, because you’re just copying someone who's better than you at being a good person.

But over time, these actions will become an ingrained part of your character.

And eventually, it becomes that robust trait that Aristotle was talking about.

It'll just manifest every time you need it.

That's when you know you have virtue, fully realized. It becomes effortless.

OK but: Why? What's your motivation?

What if you have no desire to be the guy who always says the right thing, or the lady who always finds the courage when it's needed?

Virtue theory says that you should become virtuous because, if you are, then you can attain the pinnacle of humanity.

It allows you to achieve what's known as eudaimonia.

This is a cool Greek word that doesn’t have a simple English translation.

You might say it means “a life well lived.”

It’s sometimes translated as “human flourishing.”

And a life of eudaimonia is a life of striving.

It’s a life of pushing yourself to your limits, and finding success.

A eudaimonistic life will be full of the happiness that comes from achieving something really difficult, rather than just having it handed to you.

But choosing to live a eudaimonistic life means that you’re never done improving, you’re never to a point where you can just coast.

You’re constantly setting new goals, and working to develop new muscles.

Choosing to live life in this way also means you'll face disappointments, and failures.

Eudaimonia doesn’t mean a life of cupcakes and rainbows.

It means the sweet pleasure of sinking into bed at the end of an absolutely exhausting day.

It’s the satisfaction of knowing you’ve accomplished a lot, and that you’ve pushed yourself to be the very best person you could be.

This is morality, for Aristotle.

It’s being the best you can personally be, honing your strengths while working on your weaknesses.

And, for Aristotle, the kind of person who lives like this, is the kind of person who will do good things.

Today we learned about virtue theory.

We studied the Golden Mean, and how it exists as a midpoint between vices of excess and deficiency.

We talked about moral exemplars, and the life of eudaimonia that comes with virtuousness.

Next time, we’re going to consider a tricky little problem in ethics known as moral luck.

Crash Course Philosophy is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios.

You can head over to their channel to check out a playlist of the latest episodes from shows like:

PBS Space Time, BBQ with Franklin, and PBS OffBook.

This episode of Crash Course was filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio

with the help of all of these awesome people and our equally fantastic graphics team is Thought Cafe.