The Central Dogma: DNA to proteins (an animated lecture video)

thebiologyprimer
20 Apr 201727:27

Summary

TLDREl guion ofrece una introducción a cómo el ADN da forma a nuestras características al codificar proteínas. Se explica el proceso de transcripción y traducción que convierte la información génica en proteínas, así como la estructura molecular de ácidos nucleicos y proteínas. Se utiliza una analogía de imprimir un ensayo para ilustrar la transcripción y traducción. Además, se discuten los distintos niveles de estructura de las proteínas y cómo la secuencia de aminoácidos determina su forma y función. El guion también explora la importancia de las bases nitrogenadas en el ADN y cómo su combinación afecta la forma de las proteínas, con ejemplos como el anemia falciforme causada por una única variación en una proteína.

Takeaways

  • 🧬 La genética se basa en el ADN, que actúa como un almacén de información y es capaz de replicarse.
  • 📚 El 'Dogma Central' de la biología molecular describe cómo el ADN se convierte en ARN mensajero (mRNA) y luego en proteínas.
  • 🔠 El lenguaje genético se basa en cuatro letras: adenina (A), timina (T), citosina (C) y guanina (G).
  • 🌐 El ADN es una molécula de doble helix, compuesta por dos cadenas antiparalelas conectadas por pares de bases.
  • 🔄 El proceso de transcripción convierte la información del ADN en mRNA, mientras que la traducción convierte el mRNA en proteínas.
  • 📝 La estructura primaria de un ARN o ADN es la secuencia de nucleótidos que determina su función.
  • 🧬 Las proteínas son polímeros de aminoácidos y su forma tridimensional es crucial para su función.
  • 🔗 La estructura secundaria de las proteínas se compone de alfahélices y betaplacas, formadas por enlaces de hidrógeno.
  • 🌀 La estructura terciaria de una proteína es el resultado de las interacciones entre los grupos laterales (R) de los aminoácidos.
  • 🤝 La estructura cuaternaria se refiere a las proteínas que están compuestas de múltiples polipeptidos.
  • 🌐 La variación en una sola base del ADN puede causar cambios significativos en la estructura y función de una proteína, como en el anemia falciforme.

Q & A

  • ¿Qué es la molécula de ADN y qué función cumple en la biología?

    -La molécula de ADN, o ácido desoxirribonucleico, es una molécula de información que almacena los datos genéticos en todas las formas de vida. Sirve como plantilla para la síntesis de ARN mensajero (mRNA), que a su vez se traduce en proteínas, esenciales para la función y estructura de las células.

  • ¿Qué es la hipótesis central de la biología molecular y quiénes la propusieron?

    -La hipótesis central de la biología molecular fue propuesta por Francis Crick y describe cómo la información de la ADN se transfiere y se traduce en proteínas. Esto implica dos procesos principales: la transcripción, donde la ADN se copia en ARNm, y la traducción, donde el ARNm se traduce en una cadena de aminoácidos para formar proteínas.

  • ¿Cómo se describe el proceso de transcripción en el script?

    -El proceso de transcripción es cuando la información del ADN se copia en una molécula de ARN mensajero (mRNA). Este proceso es crucial ya que permite que la información genética se utilice para la síntesis de proteínas en el ribosoma.

  • ¿Qué es el ARN mensajero (mRNA) y qué papel juega en la síntesis de proteínas?

    -El ARN mensajero es una molécula que actúa como intermediario entre la ADN y las proteínas. Se genera a partir de una secuencia específica de la ADN y lleva la información codificada para la síntesis de una cadena específica de aminoácidos en el ribosoma.

  • ¿Qué son las proteínas y cómo se relacionan con la función celular?

    -Las proteínas son grandes moléculas que sirven como máquinas celulares y participan en una amplia variedad de procesos biológicos, como la señalización celular, la catalización de reacciones químicas y el transporte molecular. Cada proteína tiene una forma tridimensional específica que determina su función.

  • ¿Cómo se describe la estructura primaria de una molécula de ADN?

    -La estructura primaria de una molécula de ADN se compone de una secuencia de nucleótidos que determina la información genética. Los nucleótidos están conectados por enlaces fosfodiesteros, formando una doble helix donde las cadenas se encuentran opuestas en sentido antiparalelo.

  • ¿Cuáles son las diferencias entre los nucleótidos de la ADN y los de la RNA?

    -Los nucleótidos de la ADN, llamados deoxyribonucleótidos, tienen un azúcar llamado desoxirribosa y cuatro bases nitrogenadas: adenina, timina, citosina y guanina. Mientras tanto, los nucleótidos de la RNA, ribonucleótidos, tienen un azúcar llamado ribosa y una quinta base nitrogenada, uracilo, en lugar de timina.

  • ¿Qué es la estructura secundaria de la ADN y cómo se descubrió?

    -La estructura secundaria de la ADN es la forma en que los nucleótidos se organizan en una doble helix. Este descubrimiento fue posible gracias a los estudios de Rosalind Franklin y Maurice Wilkins, quienes usaron cristalografía de rayos X para determinar la forma molecular de la ADN.

  • ¿Cómo se describe la relación entre las bases nitrogenadas en la estructura de la ADN?

    -Las bases nitrogenadas en la ADN se unen a través de emparejamiento base por base, donde la adenina (A) se une a la timina (T) y la citosina (C) se une a la guanina (G), manteniendo la información genética y dando forma a la doble helix.

  • ¿Qué son las proteínas y cuántos tipos de aminoácidos hay en las proteínas de los seres vivos?

    -Las proteínas son polímeros formados por cadenas de monómeros llamados aminoácidos. Hay más de 500 aminoácidos conocidos, pero solo 20 de ellos son utilizados en las proteínas de los seres vivos.

  • ¿Cómo se relaciona la estructura primaria de una proteína con su función?

    -La estructura primaria de una proteína, que es la secuencia de aminoácidos, determina su forma tridimensional, que a su vez define su función. Cualquier cambio en la secuencia de aminoácidos puede afectar la forma y, por lo tanto, la función de la proteína.

Outlines

00:00

🧬 Fundamentos de la Bioquímica Molecular

Este párrafo introduce los conceptos básicos de cómo la DNA da forma a las proteínas y explora la estructura molecular de ácidos nucleicos y proteínas. Se menciona que todos los organismos vivos comparten un código genético y que Francis Crick propuso que la DNA es una molécula de almacenamiento informativo capaz de replicarse y transmitir información a través de ARN mensajero (mRNA) para sintetizar proteínas. La analogía de imprimir un ensayo en una computadora se utiliza para explicar el proceso de transcripción y traducción, donde la información de la DNA se transcribe a mRNA y luego se traduce a una cadena específica de aminoácidos en el ribosoma para formar proteínas. Además, se describe la importancia de la forma tridimensional de las proteínas en su función.

05:00

🌟 Composición y Estructura de ADN y ARN

Se describe la composición de los ácidos nucleicos, el ADN y el ARN, enfocándose en las diferencias entre ellos. El ADN es una molécula doblamente enroscada compuesta por monómeros llamados deoxirribonucleótidos, que consisten en un grupo fosfato, un azúcar (desoxirribosa) y una de cuatro bases nitrogenadas. Por otro lado, el ARN es una cadena sencilla compuesta por ribonucleótidos, que difieren en el azúcar (ribosa) y una de las bases nitrogenadas (uracilo en lugar de timina). Se explica cómo estos monómeros están conectados mediante enlaces fosfodiester y se proporciona información sobre la direcciónalidad de las cadenas nucleicas, marcada por los extremos 5' y 3'.

10:03

🎓 Estructura Secundaria de la DNA y Descubrimientos Clave

Este párrafo detalla la estructura secundaria de la DNA, que fue un hito en la biología del siglo XX. Se menciona el trabajo pionero de Erwin Chargaff, que descubrió la relación de paridad entre las bases, y la hipótesis de Watson y Crick sobre la doble helice de la DNA con base par. Se describe cómo la evidencia de Rosalind Franklin y Maurice Wilkins, mediante cristalografía de rayos X, ayudó a determinar la forma molecular de la DNA. La base par se establece a través de un enlace de hidrógeno, lo que explica la forma y estabilidad de la doble helice.

15:05

🛠 Funciones y Estructura de las Proteínas

Se explora el papel de las proteínas como máquinas celulares y su importancia en los procesos biológicos. Las proteínas son polímeros formados por cadenas de monómeros llamados aminoácidos, y solo 20 de los más de 500 aminoácidos conocidos aparecen en las proteínas de los organismos vivos. Se describe la estructura de los aminoácidos y cómo las diferencias en sus grupos laterales (R) afectan la forma y la función de las proteínas. Además, se explica cómo las enzimas catalizan reacciones químicas y cómo las proteínas pueden ser transportadoras moleculares, con la forma tridimensional de las proteínas siendo crucial para su función.

20:06

🔍 Estructura de los Aminoácidos y Enfermedades Genéticas

Este párrafo se enfoca en la estructura primaria de las proteínas, donde la secuencia de aminoácidos es crucial para su función. Se utiliza la anemia falciforme como ejemplo de una enfermedad causada por una variación en la estructura primaria de una proteína, específicamente la hemoglobina. Se discute cómo una sustitución de un solo amino ácido puede cambiar drásticamente la forma y la función de una proteína, y cómo esto puede tener consecuencias médicas significativas. También se menciona cómo ciertas condiciones genéticas pueden ser ventajosas en ciertos entornos, como la resistencia a la malaria en el caso de la anemia falciforme.

25:08

🌀 Estructuras Secundaria y Terciaria de las Proteínas

Se describen las estructuras secundaria y terciaria de las proteínas, que son esenciales para su forma y función. La estructura secundaria se compone de patrones regulares como el alfa hélice y las hojas plegada, que se forman a través de enlaces de hidrógeno entre los grupos amine y carboxilo de los aminoácidos vecinos. La estructura terciaria se define por cómo los grupos R de los aminoácidos vecinos interactúan, lo que resulta en patrones de plegado específicos que estabilizan la forma tridimensional de la polipeptídica. Además, se mencionan las interacciones entre los grupos R, incluyendo enlaces de hidrógeno, iones y otras fuerzas no covalentes, que contribuyen a la estabilidad y forma de las proteínas.

🧬 Codigo Genético y Procesos de Transcripción y Traducción

Este párrafo concluye el script con una breve mención de los temas que se abordarán en una próxima lección, que incluyen el código genético y los detalles específicos de la transcripción y traducción. Aunque no se proporcionan detalles en este párrafo, se establece el contexto para una discusión más profunda sobre cómo la información genética se convierte en proteínas y cómo se regula este proceso en las células.

Mindmap

Keywords

💡DNA

DNA, o ácido desoxirribonucleico, es una molécula de doble helix que contiene la información genética en todos los organismos vivos. Es el núcleo de la herencia y diversidad biológica, como se menciona en el guion cuando se discute cómo 'genéticamente eres quien eres porque de ADN'. El ADN se replica y se transcribe en ARN mensajero (mRNA), que luego es traducido en proteínas, proceso fundamental en la biología molecular.

💡Proteínas

Las proteínas son grandes moléculas que actúan como máquinas celulares y son esenciales para la vida. Son polímeros formados por aminoácidos, como se describe en el guion con 'proteinas son las máquinas internas de las células'. Las proteínas tienen distintas funciones, desde la señalización celular hasta la catalización de reacciones químicas, y su forma tridimensional, determinada por la secuencia de aminoácidos, es crucial para su función.

💡Transcripción

La transcripción es el proceso por el cual el ADN se copia en ARN, como se ilustra en el guion con la analogía de 'DNA sirve como plantilla para la síntesis directa de un ARN mensajero'. Es una etapa clave en la expresión gènetica, donde la información del ADN se transfiere al ARN, preparando el escenario para la traducción en proteínas.

💡Traducción

La traducción es el proceso en el que el ARN mensajero (mRNA) es leído por ribosomas y traducido en una cadena específica de aminoácidos, que se convierte en una proteína. El guion lo compara con 'la impresión de un ensayo desde una computadora', donde el ARN es el mensaje enviado a la impresora, que es el ribosoma en la analogía.

💡ARN mensajero (mRNA)

El mRNA es una molécula de ARN que actúa como intermediario entre el ADN y las proteínas. Se menciona en el guion como 'también conocido como ARN mensajero', y es el resultado de la transcripción del ADN. El mRNA lleva la información genética del núcleo a las ribosomas, donde se traduce en proteínas.

💡ARN de transferencia (tRNA)

El tRNA es una molécula de ARN que desempeña un papel crucial en la traducción proteica. Se describe en el guion como 'molecules que realmente traducen el mRNA en el ribosoma', y es responsable de llevar los aminoácidos específicos a la cadena en crecimiento de la proteína durante la síntesis.

💡Ribosoma

El ribosoma es una estructura celular que actúa como 'impresora' en la traducción genética, tal como se menciona en el guion. Es un complejo de proteínas y ARN ribosomal (rRNA) donde se lee el mRNA y se construye la proteína a partir de aminoácidos, uno por uno.

💡Aminoácidos

Los aminoácidos son los monómeros que componen las proteínas, como se indica en el guion con 'cada proteína tiene una secuencia específica de aminoácidos'. Hay 20 tipos de aminoácidos que se combinan en diferentes secuencias para formar proteínas con funciones únicas en el organismo.

💡Esfera de Chargaff

La esfera de Chargaff es un principio fundamental en la química del ADN, que establece que la cantidad de adenina (A) es igual a la de timina (T) y la de citosina (C) es igual a la de guanina (G). Esto se menciona en el guion como 'descubrió que la abundancia relativa de guanina es igual a citosina y la abundancia relativa de adenina es igual a timina', lo cual fue crucial para la comprensión de la estructura del ADN.

💡Doblingue helicoidal

La doble helix es la forma tridimensional del ADN, descrita en el guion como 'el análisis de la difracción de rayos X permitió concluir que... el分子debe ser helicoidal'. Esta estructura fue descubierta por Watson y Crick y es fundamental para la comprensión de cómo se almacena y se transmite la información genética.

Highlights

DNA como molécula de almacenamiento de información y su capacidad de replicación.

El concepto del 'dogma central' de la biología molecular.

Proceso de transcripción de ADN a ARNmessenger (mRNA).

La traducción de mRNA a proteínas a través del ribosoma y el ARN de transferencia (tRNA).

La estructura tridimensional de las proteínas y su importancia en la función celular.

Analogía entre la transcripción y traducción y el proceso de imprimir un ensayo desde una computadora.

La síntesis de proteínas y su comparación con el lenguaje de nucleótidos y aminoácidos.

La diferencia entre el azúcar de ribosa en ARN y deoxirribosa en ADN y su importancia.

La base de uracilo en ARN en lugar de timina en ADN y su implicación en la diferenciación de los dos tipos de ácidos nucleicos.

La formación de enlaces fosfodiester por condensación en la creación de ácidos nucleicos.

La direcciónalidad de los ácidos nucleicos y su notación secuencial.

La estructura secundaria del ADN y la hipótesis de la doble hélice propuesta por Watson y Crick.

La relación entre la paridad de bases y la estructura del ADN según las reglas de Chargaff.

El papel del ácido ribonucleico en la síntesis activa de proteínas.

La diferencia entre los ácidos nucleicos y las proteínas en términos de sus monómeros y estructura.

La estructura primaria de las proteínas y su relación con la secuencia de aminoácidos.

La anemia falciforme como un ejemplo de cómo una variación en la estructura primaria de una proteína puede causar un trastorno heredado.

La ventaja evolutiva de la anemia falciforme en áreas donde predomina la malaria.

La estructura secundaria de las proteínas, incluyendo las helicias alfa y las hojas plegada beta.

La estructura terciaria de las proteínas y cómo las interacciones de los grupos laterales de los aminoácidos afectan su forma.

La estructura cuaternaria de las proteínas y cómo múltiples polipeptídos pueden interactuar para formar una proteína funcional completa.

Transcripts

play00:05

[Music]

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genetically you are who you are because

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of DNA but how does DNA make you you in

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this lecture you will learn the basics

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of how DNA makes proteins and

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investigate the molecular structure of

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nucleic acids and proteins

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as our understand

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biological molecules increased in the

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20th century researchers discovered that

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all living organisms share a genetic

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code in 1956 Francis Crick proposed that

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DNA is an informational storage molecule

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capable of replicating itself further he

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proposed that the information that was

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transmitted had to be read by a

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manufacturing body within the cell which

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puts amino acids together in a specific

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sequence ultimately synthesizing a

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protein this became known as the central

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dogma of molecular biology specifically

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DNA serves as a template for the direct

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synthesis of a messenger RNA molecule

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also known as mRNA in a process known as

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transcription secondly mRNA is read at a

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ribosome by transfer RNAs also known as

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T RNAs which work together to assemble a

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specific chain of amino acids which

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collectively assembled to generate a

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protein in a process known as

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translation proteins are the cells

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internal machinery similar to parts of a

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car each protein has a specific

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three-dimensional shape that determines

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its function any change in the shape

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potentially changes the function of the

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protein consider an analogy of

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transcription and translation to

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printing an essay from a computer once

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your essay is complete you store the

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document to the hard drive similar to

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DNA the hard drive stores information

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DNA is a genetic storage molecule data

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and computer is stored in a binary

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language when it's time to print your

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essay you send a command to the computer

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to send a message to the printer this

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message is akin to mRNA a genetic

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messaging molecule similar to the binary

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message sent to the printer DNA and RNA

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share a chemical language based on

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nucleotides hence why the information

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exchanged from DNA to RNA is called

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transcription an exchange of information

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in the same language once the

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information is received at the printer

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it is translated from a binary language

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into a different language a language of

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ink analogously mrna is read by the

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ribosome and translated into the

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language of proteins which are made up

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of amino acids thus the process from RNA

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to protein

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is known as translation translating from

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the language of nucleotides to amino

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acids the ribosome is akin to the

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printer serving as a facility for the

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process of translation the molecules

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that actually translate the mRNA at the

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ribosome are a different kind of RNA

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transfer RNA or tRNA in the process of

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translation a tRNA reads the mRNA and

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links a specific amino acid to a growing

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protein for your essay to represent your

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idea the ink must be physically arranged

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in a specific manner any malfunctioning

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the positioning of the letters would not

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convey the same idea

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similarly proteins have a specific

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three-dimensional shape that determines

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their function any change in that shape

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can potentially alter its function in

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our analogy DNA is the stored file in

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the hard drive mRNA is the message sent

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to the printer the printer is the

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ribosome the SI is the protein in the

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letters represent the amino acids DNA

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indirectly codes for proteins DNA

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directly creates all of the intermediate

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players of transcription and translation

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DNA's day to day function is the

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production of RNA molecules messenger

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RNA is directly generated by a specific

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segment of DNA that segment of DNA is

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known as a gene the mRNA travels to a

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ribosome which is made up of a protein

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and another type of RNA ribosomal RNA or

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rRNA at the ribosome the mRNA serves as

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a code for the synthesis of protein by

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linking specific amino acids in an exact

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sequence the overall collection of an

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amino acid chain is the protein Dena is

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also capable of self replication

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necessary for the creation of new cell's

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DNA and RNA are biological molecules

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known as nucleic acids nucleic acids as

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well as proteins are polymers or

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molecules made up of a linking chain of

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repeating molecules the repeating

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components are known as monomers the

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monomers when nucleic acids are

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nucleotides which are composed of three

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components

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hey sugar a phosphate group and in that

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raja'na space DNA or deoxyribonucleic

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acid is a double-stranded nucleic acid

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composed of monomers known as

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deoxyribonucleotides a

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deoxyribonucleotide is made up of three

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components a phosphate group the sugar

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deoxyribose and one of four nitrogenous

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bases while the phosphate group and

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deoxyribose are identical in the varying

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deoxyribonucleotides

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DNA houses for different nitrogenous

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bases adenine known as a thymine T

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cytosine C and guanine G these four

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different nucleotides serve as the

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letters of the genetic informational

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storage which are transcribed into mRNA

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and eventually read at the ribosome to

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create a protein all of the biological

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diversity on earth in the world is based

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on the language of life which only has

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four letters

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these nitrogenous bases can be placed

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into categories based on their shape

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thymine and cytosine are each composed

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of a single carbon ring skeleton and are

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known as parameters whereas adenine and

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guanine are composed of two carbon ring

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skeletons connected together once

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excited in yellow and five sided and

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these are known as purines ribonucleic

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acids RNAs are single-stranded nucleic

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acid polymers made up of the monomers

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ribonucleotides ribonucleotides are

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identical to deoxyribonucleotides with

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two exceptions first ribonucleotides are

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made of the sugar ribose which has a

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hydroxide at the two prime carbon

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whereas deoxyribose has a hydrogen atom

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at that location the carbons of ribose

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and deoxyribose are notated moving

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clockwise from the oxygen ring one prime

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to five prime the 1 prime carbon

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connects to the nitrogenous base the

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atoms attached to the two prime carbon

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differ between ribose and deoxyribose

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clockwise from the two prime carbon is

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the 3 prime carbon followed by the four

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prime carbon and the five prime carbon

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attaches to the phosphate group so

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relative to RNA sugar ribose DNA sugar

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deoxyribose lacks an oxygen at the two

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prime carbon

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hence deoxy ribose that single

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difference allows cells to differentiate

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between those two nucleotides second

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ribonucleotides differ in their suite of

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nitrogenous bases 3 ribonucleotides have

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the same nitrogenous base as the

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deoxyribonucleotides cytosine guanine

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and adenine while the fourth

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ribonucleotide is composed of the

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nitrogenous base uracil

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your SIL is very similar to the thymine

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except that there is a hydrogen atom at

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the three prime location of uracil while

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thymine has a methyl or ch3 group there

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the phosphate group is identical for

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both ribonucleotides and

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deoxyribonucleotides nucleotides linked

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together in long chains to form a

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nucleic acid individual nucleotides are

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connected by a covalent bond that forms

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between the three prime carbon of the

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sugar molecule of one nucleotide and a

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phosphorus of the phosphate group of an

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adjacent nucleotide in this reaction a

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hydrogen atom is removed from the three

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prime carbon and hydroxyl is removed

play08:40

from the phosphate these byproducts

play08:43

combine forming water and a reaction

play08:46

known as a condensation reaction

play08:48

following this reaction the two

play08:50

nucleotides are connected by a

play08:52

phosphodiester bond in which a phosphate

play08:55

group is linked to the five prime carbon

play08:58

of its original nucleotide and the three

play09:01

prime carbon of an adjacent nucleotide

play09:05

adding a third nucleotide the nucleic

play09:08

acid begins to take shape in this

play09:11

developing nucleic acid a phosphate is

play09:13

attached to a sugar which is attached to

play09:15

a phosphate attached to a sugar and so

play09:17

on

play09:18

a phosphodiester linkage involves two of

play09:22

the three components of a nucleotide a

play09:24

phosphate and a sugar hanging off to the

play09:28

side of the nucleic backbone are the

play09:30

nitrogenous bases this repeating pattern

play09:32

forms the backbone of nucleic acids one

play09:36

end of a nucleic acid strand is bound by

play09:38

a phosphate group while the opposite end

play09:40

is bound by a sugar giving DNA and RNA

play09:43

directionality the phosphate group

play09:46

terminus of a nucleic acid is referred

play09:48

to as the five prime end of the Strand

play09:50

as the five prime carbon is the closest

play09:54

carbon to the end of that molecule the

play09:56

opposite end of the nucleic backbone

play09:57

contains a sugar terminus called the

play09:59

three prime end the sequence of

play10:03

nucleotides in a nucleic acid is known

play10:05

as its primary structure scientists have

play10:09

standardized the notation of nucleic

play10:10

acids primary structure by listing the

play10:13

nucleotides from the five prime end to

play10:15

the three prime end five prime to three

play10:17

prime for example a segment of RNA

play10:20

adenine guanine guanine uracil adenine

play10:24

cytosine would be notated a g g u a c

play10:32

RNA or ribonucleic acid is a

play10:35

single-stranded nucleic acid composed of

play10:38

ribonucleotides the nucleic backbone of

play10:41

RNA is bound by a phosphate group at the

play10:43

five prime terminus and ribose a sugar

play10:46

on the three prime terminus each

play10:49

ribonucleotide has one of four

play10:51

nitrogenous bases adenine uracil

play10:55

cytosine and guanine RNA molecules are

play11:00

predominantly responsible for actively

play11:02

synthesizing proteins DNA synthesizes

play11:06

messenger RNA mRNA which transmits

play11:09

genetic information from DNA to arrived

play11:11

ISM the primary sequence of the mRNA

play11:14

determines the sequence of amino acid

play11:16

and the resultant protein ribosomes are

play11:20

hybrid complexes made up of proteins and

play11:23

a different type of RNA ribosomal RNA

play11:25

are RNA at the ribosome the mRNA is read

play11:30

and decoded by a third

play11:31

RNA transfer RNA or tRNA and eukaryotes

play11:36

a different are in a small nuclear RNA s

play11:39

in RNA is involved in modifying the mRNA

play11:42

after transcription and before

play11:44

translation DNA is the double-stranded

play11:47

nucleic acid composed of

play11:50

deoxyribonucleotides which vary from

play11:52

ribonucleotides by having a different

play11:55

five carbon sugar called deoxyribose in

play11:59

living organisms there are four

play12:01

deoxyribonucleotides that vary in their

play12:03

nitrogenous bases adenine thymine

play12:06

cytosine and guanine once the primary

play12:11

structure of DNA was solidified the next

play12:13

question was how are the nucleotides

play12:14

arranged to create the DNA molecule or

play12:18

the secondary structure of DNA the

play12:21

discovery of DNA secondary structure was

play12:24

one of the most important biological

play12:26

discoveries of the 20th century one of

play12:29

the first Clues came from analyses

play12:30

conducted in the early 1950s by erwin

play12:32

chargaff comparing the relative

play12:34

abundances of deoxyribonucleotides

play12:36

across a variety of organisms chargaff

play12:41

discovered that the relative abundance

play12:42

of guanine equal cytosine and the

play12:45

relative abundance of adenine equals

play12:48

thymine and what is most interesting

play12:50

about this is that he found this

play12:52

relationship across many different

play12:54

species of organisms chargaff's

play12:58

discovery was instrumental to scientist

play13:00

uncovering DNA secondary structure James

play13:03

Watson and Francis Crick suggested shar

play13:06

graphs evidence strongly supports base

play13:08

pairing in DNA in which

play13:11

deoxyribonucleotides of adenine attached

play13:13

a thymine and guanine attaches to

play13:16

cytosine in addition Watson and Crick

play13:19

hypothesized that base pairing of

play13:21

deoxyribonucleotides suggests that DNA

play13:24

was most likely double-stranded

play13:28

acquire evidence of the actual molecular

play13:31

shape of DNA rosalind Franklin and

play13:34

Maurice Wilkins bombarded DNA with

play13:36

x-rays and analyzed how the radiation

play13:38

scattered a technique known as x-ray

play13:40

chromatography analysis of the scatter

play13:43

plots from this technique allowed them

play13:44

to measure the distance between atoms

play13:46

and DNA and they were able to conclude

play13:48

three things one DNA has a consistent

play13:52

width to within DNA as a repeating

play13:56

pattern in three the molecule must be

play13:59

helical in collaboration with Franklin

play14:03

and Wilkins

play14:04

Watson and Crick used the measurements

play14:05

to define the geometry of the components

play14:07

of the deoxyribonucleotides creating

play14:10

physical models of the nucleotides

play14:12

literally paper cutouts Watson and Crick

play14:14

tinkered with the different arrangements

play14:16

of the nucleotides to explain one

play14:17

chargaff's rule to a consistent width 3

play14:22

the repeating pattern of the nucleotides

play14:24

and for the helical shape of the DNA by

play14:27

arranging base pairing nucleotides a

play14:29

with T and C with G side-by-side and

play14:32

strands running in opposite directions

play14:34

all of the discoveries could be

play14:36

explained in other words Watson and

play14:38

Crick suggested that DNA is composed of

play14:41

two strands one running five prime to

play14:43

three prime connected to a second strand

play14:45

running three prime to five prime this

play14:48

orientation is called anti parallel the

play14:51

nucleic backbone is composed of

play14:53

alternating phosphate and deoxyribose

play14:55

sugar molecules with a phosphate on the

play14:58

five prime end of the Strand

play14:59

and a deoxyribose on the three prime end

play15:02

the strands twist to form a double helix

play15:05

a spiral bounded on the outside by two

play15:08

nucleic backbones running in opposite

play15:10

directions with a nitrogenous bases

play15:12

facing inward based on chargaff's

play15:15

findings Watson and Crick determined

play15:17

that the nitrogenous bases from adjacent

play15:18

DNA strands connect according to base

play15:21

pairing the discovery of a consistent

play15:23

width of the DNA also supported the 80

play15:26

and CG base pairing while adenine and

play15:30

guanine are different molecules they're

play15:31

both purines and approximately the same

play15:33

size and shape the same is also true of

play15:36

the perimeters cytosine and thymine

play15:38

however purines consist of a figure 8

play15:40

structure which is larger than the

play15:42

search

play15:42

Euler structure of the parameters for

play15:45

the width of DNA to be consistent with

play15:46

the variety of shapes found in the

play15:47

nitrogenous bases purines must connect

play15:50

with perimeters a purine purine base

play15:53

pairing creates a larger molecule width

play15:55

and observed and a perimeter perimeter

play15:57

would be too small if a purine

play16:01

pyrimidine base pairing explains a

play16:02

consistent width of a double-stranded

play16:04

DNA molecule why does guanine a purine

play16:07

always appear to bind with cytosine a

play16:10

pyrimidine but never thymine also a

play16:12

perimeter

play16:13

why doesn't adenine a purine bind with

play16:16

cytosine with their physical models of

play16:19

the nucleotides Watson and Crick deduced

play16:21

the nitrogenous bases of the adjacent

play16:23

strands were held together by hydrogen

play16:24

bonding due to the differential in

play16:27

electronegativities the hydrogen's of

play16:29

the nitrogenous bases are partially

play16:31

positive and the oxygens and nitrogen's

play16:34

are partially negative hydrogen bonds

play16:37

form between the partially positive and

play16:38

partially negative atoms of adjacent

play16:40

nitrogenous bases investigating the

play16:43

shapes and interactions of these four

play16:44

nitrogenous bases they discovered that

play16:46

guanine and cytosine were geometrically

play16:48

complements of each other and held

play16:51

together by three hydrogen bonds well I

play16:54

hadn't even finding are held together by

play16:55

two hydrogen bonds essentially the AAT

play16:59

and ceg pairing are more stable than any

play17:02

other combination due the

play17:03

complementarity of the molecular shape

play17:05

of the hydrogen bond orientation alright

play17:08

let's take a closer look at proteins

play17:11

proteins are biological molecules that

play17:14

serve as cellular machines and living

play17:15

organisms these large molecules are

play17:18

specific three-dimensional structures

play17:20

involved in biological processes such as

play17:23

cellular signaling catalyzing chemical

play17:26

reactions molecular transportations as

play17:28

well as many other functions proteins

play17:31

are polymers consisting of long chains

play17:34

of monomers amino acids of the more than

play17:38

500 amino acids known only 20 appear in

play17:41

proteins of living organisms

play17:42

an amino acid is a relatively simple

play17:45

organic molecule attached to a central

play17:48

carbon by single covalent bonds are one

play17:50

a hydrogen atom to an amine group in

play17:54

three plus three a carboxylic acid group

play17:58

Co Oh minus and for an R group also

play18:02

known as a sidechain around pH seven as

play18:05

in water the amine group of an amino

play18:07

acid attracts a proton becoming nh3 plus

play18:10

and acts as a base the carboxyl group is

play18:13

negatively charged in water due to the

play18:15

high electronegativity of both oxygens

play18:17

pulling electrons from the hydrogen and

play18:19

losing the proton different amino acids

play18:23

vary in their are group of the protein

play18:25

building amino acids the R groups can

play18:27

vary in their size shape and polarity

play18:29

proteins being made up of chains of

play18:32

amino acids vary based on the

play18:33

interactions of the atoms within the

play18:35

amino acids and water these interactions

play18:37

dictate the shape of the protein which

play18:39

in turn determines its function R groups

play18:43

vary in their polarity nonpolar

play18:45

molecules have relatively equal

play18:46

distribution of electrons via covalent

play18:48

bonding while polar molecules have

play18:51

unequal distribution of electrons the

play18:53

unequal distribution of electrons and

play18:55

polar molecules creates partially

play18:57

charged atoms polar R groups are

play19:00

hydrophilic meaning they have an

play19:01

affinity for water due to the hydrogen

play19:03

bonds between the partial charges of the

play19:05

R group and water molecules nonpolar R

play19:09

groups are repelled by water or

play19:10

hydrophobic therefore in a chain of

play19:13

amino acids ones with the polar R groups

play19:15

will bend towards water and nonpolar R

play19:17

groups will bend away

play19:18

affecting the eventual shape of a

play19:20

protein proteins are polymers of amino

play19:23

acids chained together by covalent bonds

play19:25

known as peptide bonds a peptide bond is

play19:30

a condensation reaction in which the

play19:32

oxygen ion of the carboxylic acid from

play19:34

one amino acid is removed becoming

play19:37

carboxyl and combines with two hydrogen

play19:40

atoms from the amine group of an

play19:42

adjacent amino acid to produce water a

play19:44

covalent bond forms between the two

play19:47

amino acids when the carbon of the

play19:48

carboxyl group that lost the OAH during

play19:50

the condensation reaction combines with

play19:53

the adjacent nitrogen of another amino

play19:55

acid that lost the hydrogen atoms

play19:57

bonding to adjacent amino acids this is

play20:00

a peptide bond amino acids linked via

play20:04

peptide bonds forming long-chain

play20:06

molecules or polypeptides

play20:09

proteins have four levels of structure

play20:11

the three-dimensional shape of a protein

play20:14

determines its function and the shape of

play20:16

proteins are ultimately dependent upon a

play20:18

sequence of amino acids coded for by DNA

play20:21

the unique amino acid sequence is of

play20:24

proteins primary structure in humans

play20:28

sickle-cell Denia is an inherited

play20:30

condition in which blood cells have a

play20:32

variant of the oxygen binding protein

play20:35

hemoglobin sickle cell anemia is

play20:38

considered a disease of the primary

play20:40

structure of proteins as it is caused by

play20:43

the variation of a single amino acid in

play20:45

hemoglobin a valine instead of a

play20:48

glutamate in the sixth position of a

play20:50

hundred and forty six amino acid protein

play20:52

while normal blood cells are rounded

play20:54

humans with this variant produced sickle

play20:56

shape red blood cells normal blood cells

play20:59

are elastic and flow freely through

play21:01

veins but sick old red blood cells are

play21:03

rigid and tend to get stuck where the

play21:05

veins branch this blockage starves

play21:07

downstream tissues of oxygen resulting

play21:09

in a host of medical issues including

play21:11

lower life expectancy the body

play21:14

identifies the cells when they get stuck

play21:16

and destroys them healthy red blood

play21:18

cells typically live between 90 and 120

play21:20

days whereas sick old red blood cells

play21:22

have a 10 to 20 day lifespan therefore

play21:25

people with sickle cell Dyneema must

play21:27

produce much more blood which is rich in

play21:29

iron leading to an overall iron

play21:31

deficiency or anemia interestingly

play21:34

sickle cell anemia is an evolutionary

play21:37

advantage in certain circumstances prior

play21:40

to globalization the highest rates of

play21:42

sickle cell anemia occur in tropical

play21:44

Africa the Middle East and India all

play21:46

malaria dominated areas malaria is a

play21:49

single-celled eukaryotic parasite

play21:51

transmitted by mosquitoes that some

play21:52

considered the most deadly human disease

play21:55

ever

play21:56

however in sick old red blood cells the

play21:58

malaria parasites caused a cell to

play22:00

rupture before they can successfully

play22:02

reproduce therefore people with sickle

play22:04

cell anemia have an evolutionary

play22:06

advantage over people with normal blood

play22:08

cells in these areas Nerys absent of

play22:11

malaria sick old red blood cells are

play22:12

highly disadvantageous due to the host

play22:14

of medical conditions associated with

play22:16

this variant

play22:19

all of this is caused by a single

play22:22

different amino acid in one protein an

play22:25

alteration of the proteins primary

play22:27

structure when amino acids are grouped

play22:30

into polypeptide chains neighboring

play22:32

amino acids can interact via hydrogen

play22:34

bonding these interactions can form a

play22:37

regular pattern which increases the

play22:39

molecular stability of the polypeptide

play22:40

chain these patterns are known as the

play22:43

proteins secondary structure and form

play22:46

either corkscrew shaped structures known

play22:48

as alpha helix ease or folded ribbon

play22:50

shaped structures known as beta pleated

play22:52

sheets recall oxygen has a high

play22:55

electronegativity while hydrogen has low

play22:58

electronegativity this differential in

play23:01

electronegativity results in hydrogen

play23:03

bonding between neighboring amino acids

play23:05

within a polypeptide backbone the

play23:08

hydrogen bonds can occur between amine

play23:11

groups and carboxyls the partially

play23:14

negative oxygen of the carboxyl combined

play23:16

with the hydrogen of the amine groups of

play23:18

other amino acids in alpha helixes and

play23:22

beta pleated sheets hydrogen bonding

play23:24

occurs between amine and carboxyl groups

play23:26

of different amino acids how the

play23:28

hydrogen bonding occurs between amino

play23:30

acids determines which of the two shapes

play23:32

emerges within a single amino acid of an

play23:36

alpha helix polypeptide chain the

play23:39

hydrogen's of the amine groups face the

play23:41

opposite directions relative to the

play23:43

oxygens of the carboxyl groups down the

play23:46

entire alpha helix the hydrogen's of the

play23:48

amine group face the same direction and

play23:50

oxygens of the carboxyl group orient in

play23:53

the opposite direction within the Alpha

play23:56

helix the hydrogen bonds forms when an

play23:58

oxygen of the carboxyl faces the

play24:01

hydrogen of a different amino acid

play24:02

further down the polypeptide chain this

play24:05

accumulation of multiple hydrogen bonds

play24:07

stabilizes the polypeptide chain beta

play24:11

pleated sheets are also formed by

play24:12

hydrogen bonding between the amine and

play24:14

carboxyl groups of different amino acids

play24:16

however the orientation of these groups

play24:18

differs in a single amino acid beta

play24:21

pleated sheet the oxygen of a carboxyl

play24:24

and the hydrogen of the amine group face

play24:25

in the same direction in the adjacent

play24:28

amino acid the oxygen and hydrogen both

play24:30

face the opposite direction relative to

play24:32

the first in beta pleated sheets

play24:34

hydrogen bonds also occur between the

play24:36

carboxyl oxygen and the a mean hydrogen

play24:38

between neighboring amino acids however

play24:42

the orientation of these atoms causes

play24:44

the structures to bend in a folded

play24:45

ribbon shape or beta pleated sheet while

play24:48

the secondary structure of proteins is

play24:50

determined by the interactions between

play24:51

amine groups and the carboxyl groups of

play24:53

neighboring acids tertiary structure is

play24:55

defined by how the R groups of

play24:57

neighbouring amino acids interact these

play24:59

interactions result in a very specific

play25:01

folding patterns eventually helping to

play25:03

stabilize the specific three-dimensional

play25:05

structure of the polypeptide several

play25:08

types of interactions occur between

play25:10

neighboring R groups while the hydrogen

play25:13

bonding determines the secondary

play25:15

structure of proteins hydrogen bonding

play25:17

can also occur between R groups of a

play25:19

polypeptide chain the 20-yard groups of

play25:22

amino acids are either polar or nonpolar

play25:24

polar R groups have oxygen or nitrogen

play25:27

atoms which characteristically have high

play25:30

electronegativity

play25:31

due to their high affinity for electrons

play25:33

these polar R groups tend to bond with

play25:36

hydrogen atoms of neighboring nonpolar R

play25:38

groups or the hydrogen of the amine

play25:41

group of the peptide backbone nonpolar R

play25:44

groups can also form hydrogen bonds with

play25:46

the peptide backbone either by

play25:48

interacting with the oxygen of the

play25:50

carboxyl group or the nitrogen of the

play25:52

amine group while hydrogen bonding is

play25:54

relatively weak the overarching

play25:56

abundance of these interactions forms

play25:58

very stable polypeptide structures in

play26:01

living organisms proteins are surrounded

play26:03

by water polar R groups are hydrophilic

play26:06

and been to turn towards water whereas

play26:09

nonpolar R groups are hydrophobic and

play26:11

turn away from water

play26:13

hydrophobic R groups tend to amass in

play26:15

the internal section of a protein

play26:17

forming globular masses while hydrogen

play26:20

bonding is facilitated by the

play26:21

interactions of partial charges

play26:23

certain R groups have full charges and

play26:26

are involved in ionic bonding this

play26:28

happens when completely positive R

play26:30

groups form ionic bonds with neighboring

play26:32

are groups that are completely negative

play26:36

the overall structure of a fully

play26:38

functional protein is known as the

play26:40

quaternary structure most proteins are

play26:43

composed of several polypeptides a

play26:45

polypeptide is composed of either a

play26:47

series of alpha helixes with tertiary

play26:49

level interactions or a series of beta

play26:52

pleated sheets with tertiary level

play26:53

interactions in the next lecture you're

play26:56

going to learn about the genetic code

play26:58

and the specifics of transcription and

play27:00

translation

play27:11

you

play27:17

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Biología MolecularÁcido DescarboxiladoProteínasTranscripciónTraducciónCentral DogmaÁcidos NucleicosAminoácidosEstructura SecundariaSíndrome de la Falta
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