Developmental Psychology - Human Development - CH1

Summary

This introductory developmental psychology lecture covers the basics of human development, exploring how individuals change over time through physiological and psychological means. It delves into themes like nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development. The lecture introduces key theorists such as Freud, Erikson, Skinner, and Piaget, outlining their contributions to understanding cognitive development. It also discusses research methods, emphasizing the importance of reliability, validity, and the peer-review process in scientific studies.

Takeaways

• 📚 The course covers human development from various scientific perspectives, not just psychology, including physiology and social concepts.
• 🧬 The nature versus nurture debate is a central theme, exploring the influence of genetics and environment on human development.
• 🔄 The concepts of continuity and discontinuity in development are discussed, highlighting whether growth is a smooth process or occurs in distinct stages.
• 🌐 Universal versus context-specific development is examined, questioning if development follows a single path globally or is influenced by societal and environmental factors.
• 🧬🌱 Biological forces, such as genetics and health, are key factors in human development, alongside psychological and cognitive factors.
• 🤝🌐 Social and cultural forces are emphasized as significant in shaping an individual's development, including interpersonal interactions and societal norms.
• 🔄 Life cycle forces are also considered, acknowledging that certain developments are time-bound and occur during specific life stages.
• 💭 Theories in psychology, such as those by Freud, Erikson, Skinner, Piaget, and Vygotsky, provide frameworks for understanding different aspects of development.
• 🧠 Cognitive development is explored through stages, beginning with sensorimotor and progressing to formal operations, with Piaget's theory being central.
• 👶🏫 Vygotsky's social learning theory introduces the concept of the 'zone of proximal development', emphasizing the role of social interaction in learning.
• 🎼 The importance of music education in Brevard County schools is highlighted as an example of how historical context and government policy can influence educational practices.

Q & A

What is the main focus of the first chapter in the developmental psychology course?

The first chapter focuses on an overview of human development and the study of human development, including basic definitions and the various aspects that contribute to human development over time.

What are the three main themes discussed throughout the course?

The three main themes are nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development.

How does the course address the concept of nature versus nurture?

The course discusses the debate between the influence of genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) on human development, using examples such as the determinants of IQ.

What does the term 'continuity versus discontinuity' refer to in the context of human development?

Continuity versus discontinuity refers to whether human development occurs in a smooth, continuous process or if it happens in distinct stages.

Can you explain the concept of 'universal versus context-specific development'?

Universal versus context-specific development questions whether development follows a single path for all individuals or if it is influenced by societal and environmental contexts, leading to different developmental paths.

What are the four forces that contribute to human development according to the course?

The four forces are biological forces (genetics and health), psychological forces (including cognitive development), social-cultural forces, and life cycle forces.

What is the definition of a 'theory' in the context of psychology?

In psychology, a 'theory' is an organized set of ideas designed to explain some sort of development. It has undergone scientific analysis through experimentation or study and is not based on guesswork.

How does the course discuss the contributions of Freud to psychology?

The course highlights Freud's role in bringing psychology into the academic world and his development of concepts such as the id, ego, and super-ego, as well as the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.

What is Erikson's contribution to the study of human development?

Erikson, a neo-Freudian, contributed by emphasizing the importance of culture in human development and proposing eight stages of development, each characterized by a crisis that shapes an individual's identity.

Can you provide an example of how the course explains cognitive development?

The course explains cognitive development through the work of Piaget, who proposed stages of cognitive development, starting from the sensory-motor stage in infants to the formal operational stage in late adolescence and early adulthood.

What is the significance of the 'zone of proximal development' in Vygotsky's theory?

Vygotsky's 'zone of proximal development' refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance or collaboration, highlighting the social-cultural influence on learning and development.

How does the course introduce Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory?

The course introduces Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory as an approach that views human development as interactive and influenced by multiple interconnected systems, ranging from the microsystem to the macrosystem.

What are the four features of the lifespan approach discussed in the course?

The four features of the lifespan approach are multi-directionality, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation, emphasizing the complexity and interrelatedness of developmental processes over time.

What is the difference between a longitudinal study and a cross-sectional study?

A longitudinal study follows the same participants over an extended period, while a cross-sectional study examines different age groups at the same point in time, making assumptions about development based on these different groups.

How does a meta-analysis contribute to understanding in developmental psychology?

A meta-analysis combines data from multiple studies to identify patterns and relationships across research, providing a broader perspective on a particular topic and helping to confirm or refute existing theories.

What is the importance of peer-reviewed journals in the scientific community?

Peer-reviewed journals are important because they ensure that research is accurate, valid, and reliable. Studies published in these journals undergo a rigorous review process by other experts in the field before being accepted for publication.

Outlines

00:00

😀 Introduction to Developmental Psychology

This paragraph introduces the course on developmental psychology, emphasizing that Chapter 1 will serve as an overview of human development. It discusses the multifaceted nature of human development, covering physiological, psychological, and social changes over time. The themes of nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development are introduced, highlighting the interplay between genetics, environment, and societal influences on development.

05:01

🧠 Theories and Perspectives in Psychology

The second paragraph delves into the concept of a theory in psychology, distinguishing it from a hypothesis and emphasizing the role of scientific analysis. It outlines various psychological perspectives, including psychoanalysis with Freud and Erikson, learning theory with Skinner, cognitive development with Piaget and Vygotsky, and ecological theory with Bronfenbrenner. Each theory is briefly explained, providing insight into how they contribute to our understanding of human development.

10:03

👶 Freud's and Erikson's Stages of Development

This paragraph focuses on Freud's structural model of the mind, including the id, ego, and superego, and how they contribute to our behavior and morality. It then transitions to Erikson's psychosocial theory, which builds upon Freud's work by incorporating the influence of culture. Erikson's eight stages of development are mentioned, each characterized by a crisis that, when resolved, shapes our identity and sense of self.

15:05

🎓 Learning Theories and Cognitive Development

The fourth paragraph explores learning theories, particularly Skinner's operant conditioning, and its focus on the role of consequences in shaping behavior. It then discusses social learning theory and observational learning, where individuals learn by imitating others who are perceived as successful or admirable. The paragraph also covers cognitive development, with Piaget's theory of stages emphasizing the progressive increase in cognitive abilities from birth to adulthood.

20:06

🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Social Cultural Influences and Zone of Proximal Development

This paragraph expands on Vygotsky's social cultural influence on child development, introducing the concept of 'more knowledgeable others' and the zone of proximal development. It explains how learning occurs in the context of social interaction and how the zone of proximal development represents the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance or collaboration.

25:07

🎼 The Interconnectedness of Developmental Systems

The sixth paragraph illustrates the interconnectedness of various systems in human development using the example of music education in schools. It discusses how macro-level influences, such as government policies, can impact micro-level experiences, such as a child's opportunity to learn a musical instrument. The paragraph also touches on the importance of considering historical context and multiple causations in understanding development.

30:08

🧬 Lifespan Development and Research Methods

The seventh paragraph introduces the lifespan approach to development, which considers multidirectional growth, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation. It also discusses various research methods in developmental psychology, including naturalistic and structured observation, sampling behaviors, and self-reporting. The paragraph emphasizes the importance of reliability and validity in research and the difference between a population and a sample.

35:10

🔍 Correlations, Experimental Designs, and Research Studies

The eighth paragraph discusses the concept of correlation and its limitation in proving causation. It explains experimental designs that establish cause-and-effect relationships, including the roles of independent and dependent variables. The paragraph also covers different types of research designs, such as longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential studies, as well as meta-analysis for synthesizing research findings. It concludes with the significance of peer-reviewed journals in validating and disseminating scientific research.

40:12

📚 Conclusion and Overview of Developmental Psychology

The final paragraph summarizes the key points covered in the first chapter of developmental psychology. It reiterates the importance of understanding various theories, research methods, and the peer-review process in the study of human development. The paragraph concludes with an invitation to the next class, emphasizing the ongoing exploration of developmental psychology.

Keywords

💡Human Development

Human development refers to the changes that occur in people over time, encompassing physiological, psychological, and social changes. It is the central theme of the video, which aims to explore how individuals evolve from childhood to adulthood and beyond. The script discusses various aspects of human development, such as the influence of nature versus nurture, stages of development, and the impact of social and cultural forces.

💡Nature versus Nurture

The concept of nature versus nurture is a fundamental debate in developmental psychology that addresses the extent to which an individual's characteristics are determined by genetics (nature) or by the environment and personal experiences (nurture). In the script, this concept is used to discuss the origins of traits like IQ, where it questions whether intelligence is a product of genetic inheritance or environmental factors such as access to quality education.

💡Stages of Development

Stages of development are specific periods in life characterized by certain developmental tasks or challenges that individuals typically go through. The script mentions Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which outline a series of crises that individuals resolve as they progress through life, contributing to their identity and sense of self.

💡Cognitive Development

Cognitive development involves the growth of an individual's ability to think, reason, and process information. The script discusses this concept in the context of theories proposed by Jean Piaget, who outlined stages of cognitive development from infancy to adulthood, and Lev Vygotsky, who emphasized the social and cultural influences on cognitive processes.

💡Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a therapeutic method and a theory of psychology that explores the unconscious mind to understand human behavior. The script references Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, and his contributions to psychology, such as the structure of the mind (id, ego, super-ego) and defense mechanisms like denial and repression.

💡Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased by consequences that follow it. The script mentions B.F. Skinner and his work on operant conditioning, explaining how reinforcement and punishment can shape behavior, which is a key concept in learning theory.

💡Observational Learning

Observational learning, also known as social learning, occurs when individuals learn from observing others' behaviors and the consequences of those behaviors. The script discusses this concept in relation to Albert Bandura's social learning theory, highlighting how individuals can acquire new behaviors and cognitive processes through imitation and modeling.

💡Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a concept introduced by Lev Vygotsky that refers to the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance or collaboration. The script uses this concept to illustrate how learning occurs most effectively when it is slightly beyond a learner's current capabilities but within reach with some assistance.

💡Life Span Development

Life span development encompasses the entire period from birth to death, focusing on the changes and continuities that occur throughout the life course. The script touches on this concept by discussing how development is not limited to childhood but continues throughout adulthood and old age, with various changes occurring in different domains of functioning.

💡Research Methods

Research methods are the procedures used to conduct scientific inquiry and obtain data. The script delves into various research methodologies such as naturalistic observation, structured observation, longitudinal studies, cross-sectional studies, and meta-analysis. These methods are essential for understanding developmental processes and drawing evidence-based conclusions in psychology.

💡Peer Review

Peer review is a process where scholars or experts in a field evaluate the quality, accuracy, and validity of research findings before they are published. The script mentions this process in the context of publishing research in journals, emphasizing its importance in ensuring that the research presented is reliable and contributes to the body of scientific knowledge.

Highlights

The course begins with an overview of human development, examining how people change over time across various ages.

Human development is studied through multiple areas including psychology, physiology, and social concepts.

Three main themes discussed are nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development.

The role of biological forces, psychological forces, social-cultural forces, and life cycle forces in shaping human development is explored.

A theory in psychology is defined as an organized set of ideas designed to explain some sort of development, backed by scientific analysis.

Sigmund Freud's contributions to psychology, including his theories on the id, ego, and super-ego, are reviewed.

Erik Erikson's eight stages of development and their impact on forming personal identity are discussed.

B.F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning and the role of reinforcement and punishment in behavior is covered.

The concept of observational learning or imitation in social learning theory is introduced, emphasizing the importance of modeling behavior.

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development and his stages, from sensorimotor to formal operations, are explained.

Vygotsky's social-cultural influence on cognitive development, including the zone of proximal development, is highlighted.

The ecological systems theory by Urie Bronfenbrenner, which views human development as an interaction of various systems, is presented.

The lifespan approach to development, featuring multi-directional growth, plasticity, historical context, and multiple causation, is discussed.

Research methods in developmental psychology, including naturalistic and structured observation, sampling behaviors, and self-reporting, are outlined.

The importance of reliability and validity in research, and the difference between a population and a sample, is emphasized.

Types of research designs, such as experimental, longitudinal, cross-sectional, sequential, and meta-analysis, are explained.

The process of communicating research results through peer-reviewed journals and the significance of publication in these journals is discussed.

Transcripts

hello and welcome to developmental

psychology we're going to start right

away with chapter one and work our way

through now chapter one is going to be a

little different than the rest of the

chapters where we're going to be looking

at in this chapter is sort of an

overview of human development and the

study of human development we get into

the later chapters starting with sort of

chapter three we're really gonna start

hitting different ages so we want to

start with a basic definition of human

development and what we're talking about

here in this class is we're gonna be

looking at how people change over a

period of time as we think about it who

we were when we were five versus who we

were only ten fifteen twenty twenty-five

and multiple ages after that really

changes and so this looks at those

changes we're gonna look at some

physiological changes some psychological

changes but basically it's going to be

looking at the change now this is not

based on just one particular area of

science human development this is gonna

be looking at multiple areas so it's not

just psychology but it'll be physiology

and social concepts so there's gonna be

a lot to do within this class now there

are going to be three themes that we

keep talking about and the first one's

gonna be nature versus nurture so the

question is how much Who am I based on

my genes that I got from my parents and

who-who am i based on the environment

and this is something that's always a

controversy between the two how much

does each one give so is your IQ because

of your parents or is your IQ because

you were able to go to special schools

and got all kinds of special treatment

and you've got high IQ things which one

really influenced your IQ the most and

we know that there's going to be some

that's based on your environment and

there's gonna be some that's gonna be

based on your genetics and we'll be

looking at that now continue versus

discontinuity basically is it's a smooth

pass or do we have stages now this one's

pretty easy to spot when you talk about

things because if we talk about stages

so we'll talk about a gentleman named

Erik Erikson later on and we talked

about his stages of development which we

he ceases as discontinued allottee which

means it's not smooth and keep going

where is our physical development we can

think of that as sort of continued

allottee that there's not really a stop

and start sort of to that process when

we're talking about babies growing now

Universal versus context-specific

development the question is is is there

only one way to develop or does our

society and our environments and where

we grow does that affect the way that we

develop and so your book gives a really

good example about how the children in

the United States don't want to count

money until they're somewhere in the

second or third grade is when we really

begin to work on money and yet there are

kids in other parts of the world which

are counting money very early in life

many of them are doing money and stuff

like this by time they're five or six

they're down in the marketplace is

selling basic things so that kind of

shows us that learning to count money is

not a universal thing it doesn't happen

all the same time around the world it's

rather a context specific thing the

forces that we'll be talking about that

tends to make up this subject is first

our biological forces so that's our

genetics and health related things we'll

talk about the psychological forces

within development and cognitive is one

of the things we talk about the most

now cognitive that's were that sometimes

people here sometimes don't hear but

let's make sure we're all in the same

page for this definition cognitive is

thinking some of you might think of it

as the mind when we say what's Society

of Psychology and people say the study

of the mind really they're talking about

how we think how we problem-solve how we

do things and that's sort of where

cognitive sits our social cultural

forces are something we also focus on so

the question is is how does our society

are at the Missy D and our interpersonal

react reactions to things really help

develop who we are as a person and who

we are across cultures that even us for

ourselves so I live here on the beach

and does living on the beach give me a

different sort of social cultural

background the people who live on the

mainland we always call us beach bums

and those are the mainlanders and there

is some slight differences and it does

affect who we become as people and then

we have to think about life for

and those what we're talking about here

is that our life cycle this life cycle

forces tend to also dictate who we are

there are only certain times in our life

that certain things are going to happen

and so those life cycle forces then

affect who we become as people and who

we are at the moment now the first thing

is we're going to talk about what is a

theory theory is one of those words that

tends to be thrown around a lot and we

is a very specific definition within

psychology basically it's an organized

set of ideas as designed to explain some

sort of development basically a theory

has to be something that has gone

through some sort of scientific analysis

and it's done through experimentation or

scientific study of some sort and we'll

talk a lot about scientific studies

later on but a theory is not so that it

comes from the gut now we do hear people

use words that way however that truly is

a hypothesis because we are in a science

class now so we're not going to use

theory as a guess a theory has to be

something that has been proven we're

going to be covering a bunch of

different areas within psychology and

these are sort of some of the biggies

you might want to say psychoanalysis

here we're going to be talking about

Freud and Erikson now Erikson is really

going to be your big person for this

class in fact you're going to need

Erikson for the rest of your time if you

were going into the nursing foundations

they're saying very much focuses on

Erikson and so I warn the nurses you

need to be able to memorize and

regurgitate Erikson Skinner is gonna

come under our learners and some of you

may have heard about Skinner back in

your intro class and operant

conditioning when we talk about

cognitive it's all about PJ PJ is our

big guy and we will talk about mr. vo

over here he's a little bit more in the

cognitive area we don't focus on him as

much and then finally we have our

ecological and I simply call him Yuri

because I say his name wrong all the

time and those are gonna be our big ones

are gonna focus on now when we get into

the chapters we're gonna get into these

gentlemen a little bit more specifically

and their theories of human development

specifically

this one we're just gonna kind of skim

over a little bit about many of them so

when we talk about Freud one of the

things we like about Freud is that he

really brings psychology into the

academic world until Freud comes along

we mostly had psychology in the

background it was something we just did

with crazy people in institutions or it

was mostly only done within academia but

he says hey you know what there are

other people who really need to use

psychology and we need to use psychology

in multiple ways so he brings this out

sort of to the real world which is why

Freud is so well known he also brought a

lot of the words that we tend to use

today Anil personality libretto denial

these are all words that come basically

from Freud in fact the word ego is

developed by Freud now Freud also

develops this concept that there are

three parts of the mind and if you took

our intro class to kind of cover this a

little bit but we've got the conscious

the preconscious and the unconscious now

the conscious is what you're aware so

right now you are listening to me which

means that your conscious is working um

preconscious maybe things that you're

aware of but you're not really focused

on right now but if you focus on it you

would understand it now the unconscious

is sort of our biological instincts

these are the things that sort of sit

underneath the surface and we're not

always aware of it he truly felt that if

we could become more aware of our

unconscious area that we would be able

to have better control of it and that

was the goal that he was working on was

the goal of control

if we let his three parts of personality

and again this is just a quick review

from our intro class what we have is the

conscious the preconscious and the

unconscious but within those three parts

of personality we have the it the ego

and the super-ego now remember the end

is all about pleasure it's sort of the

the pleasure principle it rules you as

far as wanting to have fun but what's

interesting is is that it's in the

unconscious so generally he felt like

this drive to have pleasure was

something we weren't always aware we're

controlling us so my great example

always is this morning when you woke up

there was this little voice it said just

stay in bed that is cool

don't get up well you can think of that

as your it'd you probably weren't really

aware that it was saying that to you and

he thought was is that if you were

somebody who were to focus on pleasure

too much trying to always have fun all

the time then we needed to help you

focus on how to listen to that voice and

control that voice well that voice is

controlled by the ego which notice is in

the conscious and the pre unconscious a

little bit in the unconscious area

basically he really thought the ego was

this very complex thing but it was ruled

by the reality principle it's that

little voice at this morning they said

no get your ass out of bed and move so

your ego is the one that sort of manages

your day-to-day activities he thought if

your it was too big that basically your

ego got squished so you were basically

running around looking for fun all the

time without really thinking about the

reality of what that might do to you so

you think about the friends you know who

are always sort of in trouble because

all they do is run around and have fun

and they don't think about the financial

cost or the physical Costas might have

and he would say they're being ruled by

their heed we're in the other thing is

is that we would have the ego and if the

ego was too big it covered up sort of

the it'd and people stopped having fun

all they did was work all they did was

try to manage things they became very

controlling and because that's what they

need to do was control their world all

the time so he always was looking for

this sort of balance between the iddah

and the ego then the last thing is he

had this super ego the super-ego is kind

of interesting

he said the super-ego is really were our

values and our morals saat but it's the

place that really we judge things so we

judge the actions that we took not the

actions of others but the actions that

we took ourselves and he really felt

that if you were taking an action that

was not within what you thought was

correct then that tended to build

anxiety or if you didn't know what

action to take that would build anxiety

I need a couple of different anxieties

we're not so interested in that in this

class but you notice that the super-ego

runs sort of the length of the it'd

the ego and that's because he really

felt that it had a very strong component

to what we do also notice that if you

look at this little line where the

unconscious is that most of it actually

sits in our unconscious and he really

felt that a lot of what drove us we just

wanted to wear up and that's why you

really focused on trying to make people

more aware of their actions

now Erikson he actually studies under

Freud he's what we call a neo Freudian

and he really believed that culture was

sort of at the center of what we do it's

not that he didn't like what Freud said

but he kind of just took it another step

now we're gonna be covering Erikson a

great deal when we get into each phase

of life and so the thing is is that he

has these eight stages that all develop

who we are now we thought most of them

happened before we were eighteen but the

the development itself really varied on

what he called these crises so here are

the basic stages don't worry about

memorizing regurgitating them now as I

said we're gonna go into these a more

depth when we get into each chapter but

what we have are these basic conflicts

so when we're young from birth to 18

months of old he really felt like this

trust or mistrust was what we were

working on and then we had the anatomy

autonomy versus shame and doubt you know

did we get to find that we walked and

talked to ourselves or were we always

worried about what somebody else was

saying then somewhere in preschool the

question is is did we begin to take

initiative or we're always feeling

guilty about you know trying to move

forward you might want to say um he

thought in school industrious versus

inferiority becomes in there basically

we need to begin to able to cope with

things we need to be able to develop a

sense of ourselves away from our parents

and we also need to be able to figure

out if we're gonna do things for

ourselves or we just always gonna wait

for somebody else to do it

adolescence is one of our fun stages we

have a couple of chapters dedicated to

just adolescence and the big thing in

adolescence is beginning to identify who

we are and developing that identity and

that

a lot of strife you might wanna say in

one's life because we have to begin to

decide how much of what we decide is us

and how much of what we decide is based

on our parents even down to things like

the shampoo we use is it my am I using

this shampoo because I picked it or

because my parents picked it for me

basically Who am I as a person and

there's a lot of conflict at this time

as far as internally trying to figure

out who I am in the young adulthood it

knows he says 19 to 40 but this happens

a little bit more the 20s and the 30s

we're talking about intimacy versus

isolation basically are we gonna be able

to develop long lasting loving

relationships now these relationships

don't always have to be of a sexual

nature we're talking about friendships

we're talking about you know good

friends that we might be able to do or

are we going to wind up in isolation

where we don't have a whole lot of

friends now he believes that a lot of

this has to also deal with identity that

if we haven't developed our identity

it's really gonna be hard for us to

develop intimacy now this phase when

we're talking about our older middle

youth kind of adulthood basically up

till retirement age is talking about are

we going to be keep moving forward are

we going to stagnate are we just going

to be you know we hit 40 and we just

don't really change much until we retire

and he really felt that the people who

kept moving and progressing and doing

things and finding new things were

people who tended to be happier versus

the people who went into stagnation

where they just really didn't do much

new things then at the end when we talk

about sixty five to death and we might

actually bump that up a little bit

higher the question is is are we happy

with the life we've chosen or do we tend

to go into despair and again we're gonna

cover each one of these much more in

depth and we go to each chapter this is

the only time though in your chapter

you're going to see all of them together

so if you're a person who every once a

while wants to go back and say wait I

forgotten how this one relates to that

one mark this page in your book and

you'll want to go back and look at it

the chart the book looks a little bit

different than this one I kind of like

this one I forgot where I stole this one

from but this one is a nice one because

I like that it has our outcomes in it

with the learning theorist what we're

talking about here is kind of a fun

thing Skinner he's best known for what's

called operant conditioning and you may

have heard about the little Skinner box

or the mouse run around and they press

these levels well what he's trying to do

is decide what consequence will

determine if that behavior happens again

so if I push the lever and I get food

I'll be likely as a mouse to go push

that lever again to get some more food

so the consequences is something that is

reinforcing I'm going to keep doing it

however if the consequence is something

that's considered to be a punishment

then I'm going to decrease that behavior

now what we talk about when we talk

about reinforcement we're talking about

positive and negative reinforcement now

here's where we have to come back to

some words the word positive and

negative this does not mean good and bad

if you went through our development our

intro to psych we pushed us and pushes

and push this positive and negative

refers to a number line which side of

zero are we on and depending on what

we're studying would depend on which

side you would like to be on the word we

want to focus here is on the word

reinforcement anytime you see the word

reinforcement and I don't care which one

of these come in front of it remember

there's an increase in behavior positive

reinforcement is talking about the

development of something good starting

negative reinforcement is talking about

something bad ending we don't like bad

things so we're gonna make sure we don't

have those happen again and we're gonna

find out whatever it is I need to do to

make sure it doesn't happen again the

other thing he talks about is punishment

and we know something is punishment if

it actually decreases the chance that

behavior is gonna happen again so if I

touch a hot stove I don't like it I'm

not likely to touch that hot stove again

now if you have not taken our

introduction of psychology class yet or

it's been a very long time there is a

lecture called conditioning and learning

that I put together for psychology 101 -

I'm going to put that in our class

you don't need to watch it unless you

really want to go back and sort of catch

up a little bit on conditioning and

learning it is something that they

assume that you know as you read through

this book because this course is of us

we take it after introduction to

psychology occasionally I get people who

get this before that so you might really

want to go and listen to that or if it's

been a very long time you may want to

choose to go back and listen to that

lecture it is not required them now with

the social learning theorists what we're

talking about is observational learning

or imitation and we know especially with

childhood this is something that people

are going to do a great deal and you

actually do this even as adults because

you think about it you're going to be

watching other students you're going to

be watching other people in class do

certain things and then you're going to

follow that example so what we talked

about observational learning let's say

that you're in the nursing program and

you have to learn how to give a shot

well you know you're gonna watch

somebody else give a shot first before

you give a shot I would hope so and so

you're going to be learning by watching

other people now what we do find is that

imitation tends to happen a lot more if

we feel like the subject is popular

smart or talented and that we think that

there's some sort of reward to that

behavior now with cognitive development

Theory we're talking about the

development of the thought process how

do we develop thought and there's gonna

be a couple people we look at with this

now there are three basic approaches

that our book will talk about push a

looks at stages so he kind of thinks of

this as being step by step by step and

then we go vhere who really says that

it's not only the age but he thinks of

this as sort of an apprenticeship that

basically our social our culture is

going to influence a lot of how we think

about things and then last there's the

information processing theory these are

more about computers and you know how we

bring information in and how we think

about it and the brain is really the

best computer out there now we as a

class don't really focus much on this

one if you are going into education you

may want to read up on this one a little

bit more but from

our students as they're going more into

the medical fields it's just not one

that we bring forward a great deal so

let's look at page a first well PJ

started to notice this difference when

he was beginning to help people develop

a cognitive ability test and for France

he was working with the Binet

intelligence test and what he began to

realize is that you know kids and adults

they they learn very differently and so

as he began to notice that kids were

learning differently he wanted to know

how that occurred well what he began to

realize is that kids experiment they did

little things if we think about you know

little babies and we think about 1 year

olds and 2 year olds they're triangle

things it doesn't matter how many times

we tell them something they're gonna try

it anyway why is that because they have

no brains yet they're little squishy

things they're not mature brains like

ours they don't even have all the parts

of the brain yet as far as thought

cognitive processes are concerned so PJ

was very interested in how does that

develop over time so what he did is he

focus on development now the reason this

is important is he's not focusing on how

we learn he's not focusing on what we

learn he's too focusing on the

development how does the brain develop

over time and then that development of

the brain how does that reflect on our

cognitive thought so don't confuse this

with education

now cognitive stages he believed was

because as children became more aware of

their surroundings they became

increasingly more cognitive and one of

the things that's interesting about PJ

is and he came up with a lot of his

concepts before we really even

understood the development of the brain

so he's a pretty smart man now he also

believed that there are these three

basic parts now we're gonna go into

these again and when we start covering

it's chapter 4 so but this is just sort

of a quick overview for you but he

thought of these three basic parts to

develop the cognitive development of the

brain first of these schemas and what

schema is

is basically a scene in your head and

this is how we think things are

organized this is how we believe

something is going to work and as we get

older we are going to course develop

more of these because we have more

scenarios in our head and so if we think

about it when I'm a kid all I think

about it that there's a car and it rolls

down the road as I get older I begin to

understand that cars have parts and then

as I get older to that I mean that parts

begin to fall apart

then I begin there saying that there may

have to be oil changes and his question

was well how do we begin to understand

all that and so what he said is that we

have to adapt so an adjustment has to be

done and they were kind of three parts

of this adjustment there's a simulation

accommodation and equilibrium now with a

simulation what we're doing is we're

using our current knowledge to

understand the new objects or situation

so I'm a little kid I understand that

cars roll down the road somebody gives

me a little play car and I roll it back

and forth because I understand that

that's what cars do now all of a sudden

I begin to saying that cars have motors

and motors run now somebody gives me a

toy car and I begin to see if I can open

the hood of that toy car and I'm

wondering why why can't I open the hood

to this toy car I don't get this well

what happens is that our new information

doesn't fit our current schema which is

that cars have engines and you should be

able to know about the car and see the

engine well this is gonna get me

frustrated I'm Alok a because this car

hood doesn't open this toy car and so I

have to begin to understand something

and what I begin to understand is that

there's a difference between the toy car

and a real car once I've got that some

learning has happened and my frustration

goes away because I understand toy cars

don't have engines and real cars do now

he believed that there were four basic

stages and again this is a very very

simple overview because we're gonna go

into detail as we get through the

chapters the first one the sensory motor

is from birth to 2 years of age and

basically you know a little baby to two

years there's not a whole lot of brain

power going on yet he's basically or

she's basically just getting a concept

about the world although we're still

going through those stages we just

talked about we have a belief of what

happens and then things change and

that's where we get the learning

pre-operational stage we begin to get

the ability to use symbols and if we

think about it

letters are symbols and so why is this

important because once we begin to

understand that letters are symbols and

once we understand what symbols mean we

can really begin to develop language

the other big thing about the the two to

seven year old age is that we only look

at things based on our own perspective

our own perspective so this egocentric

kind of atmosphere becomes and we've all

heard the joke about the two-year-old

the world is all about me everything is

about me and we'll explore that further

as we get into other chapters from there

he thinks of us having this concrete

operational thought that's 7 to early

adolescence somewhere in there we're

gonna do that what's going to begin to

happen is is that we're going to use

what we call here-and-now logic you know

this is what I see so this is what it

must be things are very concrete very

black and white

during this phase and that's how I kind

of remember it it's the black and white

phrase you know pizzas only have eight

slices and so when you tell me getting a

pizza with ten slices they'll argue with

you that you can't have a pizza it has

ten slices or they're argue with you

that you can't have a pizza that's

square because pizzas are always round

things are very concrete to them it's

not until we get a little bit older sort

of beyond adolescence very late high

school early college that we begin to

develop this formal operation and the

big thing here is that we begin to

develop abstract thought and we can

begin to develop hypothetical situations

so hypothetically if this happens what

would happen hypothetically if this

would happen what would happen and this

is really a big developmental stage

according to push a now PJ sort of ends

there but we're gonna find out that we

keep developing thought after that now

mister V here he's kind of interesting

because as I said he emphasizes this

social cultural influence of child

development where PJ's only talk about

development and then learning this one's

looking at how our social learning

influences our development so one of the

big

he talks about is MK OS or more

knowledge of others and what he believed

is is that we would learn best when

we're in situations that somebody knows

something just a little bit higher than

me now the person who knows that higher

knowledge doesn't have to always be much

older than me simply they know a little

bit more so what's gonna happen is is

you're going to have a teacher and in

this case my teacher knows more letters

than I do so my teachers going to help

me understand letters but I could also

be learning from a six-year-old who

knows more about letters that I do at

four he really didn't focus on the age

as much as the fact that somebody would

know a little bit more than you that led

him to something called the zone of

proximal development and this is one

that again a lot of our medical people

people in our occupational therapy

assistant programs things in our nursing

programs people in our health service

administration program will talk a lot

about zone of proximal development or

the CBD what we're talking about is what

is the difference between what I cannot

do without help versus what I can do by

myself now what we mean by this is that

you know if I I can't do it even with

help means that I do have the potential

to be able to do it so I can't sit there

and say well we're gonna talk about

somebody who oh let me give an example

somebody who's just had their legs

unfortunately amputated they don't have

their artificial legs yet so we can't

even talk about them walking yet because

I don't have their artificial legs yet

but now they get their artificial legs

so they still can't walk but they could

if somebody lifts them and helps them

and shows them sort of that step by step

stuff now the difference is is what I

can do by myself well I can put my legs

on by myself and I can learn to stand by

myself so the zone of development is

sort of learning to walk we could walk

with help we can put on our legs by

ourselves so what we're gonna be working

with that patient is this zone of

development now we also talked about

doing this in school we talked about

this as adults but basically this is

what these kind of concepts work and

again we're gonna go into these in depth

as we get there chapters that focus on

those areas remember this chapters just

giving you a little

you a little touch a little taste of

each one of these so you some basic

knowledge going forward now

the epilogue achill sort of approach

looks at all psychology very different

what they do is they say that all human

development is interactive and that we

can't just take one area of development

and stick it off all by itself

that we're connected but that there's no

single thing to really do to talk about

development that all aspects of our

lives sort of focus within development

this is one of our newer areas of

thought as far as human development is

concerned because it really needed to

have all these other things that we've

talked about to sort of come together

and what the big person that we really

talked about and this one is URI URI

looks at this chart right here and and

you'll find this in your textbook and

I'm gonna just tell you right now you

get to memorize regurgitate this there

are test questions on this but basically

what he says is that we have these

different systems and these systems are

constantly interacting with each other

if you think about a parent and child

are always interacting they're learning

and teaching to each other but I'm going

to use the example of music and we I'm

going to use music in Brevard County to

show how these different systems come

together so if you look at the next

system out here the mezzos system you'll

notice that school is listed there

well the question is is how does music

and school reflect on the child well

let's say that you go to school here in

Brevard County for you know 1st through

6th grade well one of the interesting

things about that is that almost all of

our schools here in Brevard County have

some sort of a music program with

instruments that is part of our schools

now why do they have that well let's go

to the exo system and over here we talk

about government and policies well why

we have that is because we had a

gentleman who was the head of Brevard

County Schools at one point who truly

believe that music education was

extremely important in the development

of a child's brain

truly believed that having spent the

money on music education that that would

help develop better thinking people well

how does he get that concept well he

gets that concept through historical

events and in this case it's through

research studies that show how music

helps develop the young brain so because

of this historical stuff out here the

macro system

it helped a government official decide

to dedicate money to music systems and

so musical education became part of our

school system and so now the child is in

school 1st through 6th grade they will

have an opportunity to learn a musical

instrument so that is where the child

will come home and say to the parent I

would like to learn violin and the

parent goes okay you're learning violin

at school that sounds good

that's a wonderful thing so it is these

different systems that are interrelated

that winds up with this child learning a

musical instrument when you perhaps have

parents who never played a musical

instrument at all

now the other reason I bring music is a

great example is we think about Brevard

County because in Brevard County we

happen to have some extraordinary music

programs you would think all schools

have this music program but they don't

so it's because we had this government

official who decided that music was

important our system that we have early

music education so how does that begin

to affect again the child in the long

run well there is this thing called

Allstate Orchestra competition and to

compete in Allstate Orchestra

competition this hat starts in seventh

grade all the musicians around the state

play the same piece of music and they

select the top players from the state to

go to the Allstate music orchestra now

if we talk about something like violin

or even the orchestra as a whole the

orchestra might have 50 kids in it let's

say only so many kids are gonna come

from each County and you know to go to

Allstate to be the best among the 50

kids in the whole state to play a

musical instrument is

enormous well with violin out of the 50

players there might be 20 25 oh it's

actually even number 26 violin players

let's say well what happened one year is

it's kind of a big deal is that brevard

county sent three people to the junior

high all state music orchestra we sent

three violinists anyway i say well three

out of 25 well yeah except for the fact

that miami-dade only sent one so if you

think about how large miami-dade county

is that's yeah the city of miami and

they only had one person who could make

it and then you look at little brevard

county which is far smaller but we had

three musicians who made it to the top

orchestra that shows you the influence

of music within the schools and that all

started from here from a government

official who decided that music was

important because he read it about some

historical events which then got into

the schools the schools liked it push it

down to the child and the parent

supported it and that's how this works

and that's what uri was talking about

that we can't just look at this as a

single event but that it's

interchangeable and that these different

layers work upon each other now we are

talking about the lifespan approach and

there are four features that we're gonna

be talking about as we go through our

different chapters one is called

multi-directional and that's basically

that the development growth and declines

sort of happen at the same time you know

we're talking about maybe bones going up

and mental processing going down or this

moving this way and that one moving that

way we can't say everything is moving at

the same direction at one time so we

talked about multi-directional as far as

development is concerned plasticity

basically says that we can improve and

develop throughout our lifetime certain

skills and abilities we talked about the

plasticity of the brain a lot if you

think about that they can compensate the

brain learns how to compensate for this

or learns how to compensate for that but

plasticity basically is just saying that

we can improve throughout our lifetime

and most things we do we talk about

historical

context were talking about how we must

consider an examined development over a

period of time you know what was the

child like at six months what were they

like at a year what were they like in

eighteen months and so historical

context card often can tell us a lot

about development in the future

so as an example my child did not get

his first tooth until he was 13 months

old now I know this because we kept

joking for his first birthday all the

child wanted was a tooth one tooth

that's it well he develops his first

tooth at 13 months old so by knowing

this now that he's a much older child we

realize that all of his teeth are going

to come in a little bit later where

other kids might have these molars and

these other things when they're young my

child is not gonna be getting them until

much later because he's just simply

developing his teeth a little bit later

so a historical context in this case

gives us an idea of what's going to

happen in the future

and what should be happening here in the

present so let's say that most kids

develop their wisdom teeth around 15

we're guessing my kid won't develop his

wisdom teeth until maybe 16 or 17 and so

we're not gonna be too worried about

that because we know that simply as far

as teeth are concerned he's a little bit

late on teeth development not a big deal

probably something genetic within the

family context multiple causation

basically says that there is not one

thing to consider again that sort of

multi-directional that different things

are growing different times so multiple

causation says that that something is

caused not just simply by a lifecycle

force or simply by a biological but that

we need to look at all three and four

things at one time that it could be a

physiological a social cultural on a

lifecycle all happening and that all

these things together sort of help us

understand the development and so as we

talk about this lifespan approach we're

going to be looking at all four of those

now what's really interesting is is that

once we get into talking about sort of

kids and adults and all that our

chapters are actually gonna be divided

up the first chapter is always going to

be biological and psychological and the

second chapters tend to be social

cultural and life cycle so adolescents

will go over two chapters

you know school goes over two chapters

late adulthood goes over two chapters

and we have sort of this pattern that

begins to emerge now when we start

talking about research the other thing

that we need to understand is that

there's more than one research project

again we went through this an

introduction of psychology if you did

not get introduction of psychology yet

I'm going to encourage you to listen to

the chapter one video that I have posted

from introduction of psychology because

it goes into more detail about research

and developmental aspects of research

again they assume that you know this

information because you've had that

class or if it's been a really long time

since you've had that class you might

want to just go back and re-listen to

that lecture just so you sort of catch

up and have this knowledge but the first

thing that they talk about in your book

is a systematic approach and when we

talk about that we talked about two

basic types of systematic approach first

would be like the naturalistic

observation real life so that's Jane

Goodall in the day and there's her

little chimpanzee I guess not really her

chimpanzee it's the chimpanzee out in

the wild and basically all I can do is

watch them I can't interact I can't do

anything with them I simply watch how

things happen in the real world and we

know how people say things happen versus

how things really happen can quite often

be very different so we don't want to

interfere in any way into what's

happening now Jane Goodall is probably

our most famous example of this but I

use this a lot in consumer psychology

and we'll talk a little bit more about

that in class structured observation

basically says that I'm going to give

some sort of scenario I'm going to do

something and what I'd like to see is

what happens after that so I give you

something and I want to see how people

interact and how people work together

and we'd like to see how that changes

behavior so I'm going to observe but I'm

gonna give a little structure to that

observation we also have what we call

sampling behaviors and so what we may do

is we give you a task and we look to see

what you do with that task so in this

case we're asking about a kid to measure

emotional reaction show which is a happy

face which is a sad face we have self

reporting and you've probably done this

at some

where somebody is sent to a survey and

they say would you please yo tell us how

you felt today eating food and you feel

that the survey it's not a bad thing the

problem with self reporting is how

accurate are you and again we may not be

as accurate as we think we do a lot of

psychological physiological measuring in

psychology for psychological concepts

and a lot of what we may do is be

measuring brainwave activities we may be

measuring pupil dilation because here we

can see physiological reactions to

development and to other processes now

we're going to be talking about

reliability and validity now these are

two words I want you to get into your

head pretty well reliability says are we

basically going to be getting the same

scores each time I mean a test isn't

very reliable if I take it one time and

I get one score and I take note I'm

gonna score

so think about something like the SATs

you know if you take it and one time you

get a 500 the next time you get a

thousand and then you go back to 600 how

reliable is that score and so we talk

about you know this is not reliable

right here and we're all over the place

now this one is reliable because look at

that we got four little spots right here

together but we're gonna say it's not

valid why because we want the middle of

this so validity says am I actually

measuring what I say I'm measuring am i

studying what I want to say so over here

we have something that that's valid you

know we are hitting all the target

that's no question about that but we're

not real reliable because again we're

all over the place so what we look for

in evaluating research methods is

something that's both reliable and valid

basically we're gonna be hitting the

middle we're gonna be close together in

those scores there's not gonna be much

difference and it's going to be on

target meaning is that it's going to be

talking about the things we wanted to

talk about so if we want to study how

smart somebody is giving them a race to

run to see how fast they can do it that

wouldn't be very valid to determine how

smart they were that determines how fast

they can run and yes maybe everyday they

can run this race and they get basically

the same score so the scores reliable

but it is a

valid and then we could do something as

I said with the SATs where we're getting

all these different scores and we're

like hey this isn't very reliable

because we keep getting different scores

but it could be valid because it is

measuring at that moment in time what

your ability to do something is we want

tests that do both we also need to make

sure you understand what a population is

versus a sample you know population is a

large group of people a sample may be a

subset of people so in this case

pregnant women that represent the

population now we can't go and find

every pregnant woman and test her so

we're going to use a small percentage of

those pregnant women and then we're

going to generalize out to the entire

population based on that sampling that

we got now we also got to talk about

that there are different types of

research developments and this is a big

one a correlation now the big thing is

that a correlation does not prove

causation

it shows relationships so it measures

how people score in two different

variables and basically what we're going

to be doing is looking at how two things

affect each other again if you haven't

heard this before you may want to go

back and listen to that lecture I have

from chapter one from introduction of

psychology we really kind of cover

correlations and depth there what we

bring into this one now that you

understand a little bit about

correlations is the fact that we're not

going to make those scatter grams every

single time because scatter grams after

a while they get a little hard to really

understand what's going on so we're

gonna be doing something called a

correlation coefficient now this is not

a statistics class so you don't have to

calculate a correlation coefficient but

you need to understand what the little R

means now a little R is basically the

symbol for correlation coefficient and

it can range between negative 1 and a

positive 1 it can never be smaller than

negative 1 it can never be larger than

positive 1 why here's a positive 1

notice that these dots are in a perfect

line and basically we make a line

straight through it it can't get any

more perfect than that and a perfect

negative 1 is just basically going the

opposite direction so we can't get any

more perfect

than that this one in the middle and our

would equal to 0 because there is no

gathering at all there's no commonality

to these at all there's no relationship

we would say now well we do have down

here is an example of a an r that's a

positive 6 in R that's a negative 6

again let's not assume that positive

means good and bad

it simply means the left or right is

zero so in this case notice that the

dots are a little bit further apart and

that means that there's maybe not as a

closer relationship here as there is

here this relationship is dead on if one

thing moves a quarter of an inch the

next one's gonna move a quarter of an

inch so great one to use for something

like this is to show something like

Fahrenheit and Celsius if something

measures in Fahrenheit and it goes up

you know two degrees it's gonna go up

two degrees in Celsius those things are

closely related down here we have the

same thing here we have two things that

are related but not exactly related but

pretty close so in this case it might be

how much we watch TV versus our grades

we would expect the more TV we watch the

further down our grades would get but we

might also want to relink the Stu

medication maybe if we take a certain

amount of medication we actually see the

number of symptoms going down so in that

case we'd like to see a negative

correlation between symptoms and

medication meaning is is we want to see

symptoms go down as we take more

medication so remember negative doesn't

always mean a bad thing in psychology

now with experimental design we are

talking about a cause-and-effect

relationship this is the only study that

gives us cause and effect between two

variables if I do this one thing what

will be the effect of that so we talked

about the fact that they were

independent dependent and extraneous

variables now your book basically just

talks about independent variables and

independent variables because again they

assume you understand what extremely as

variables are so remember that

independent variable is the thing that

we manipulate is the thing that we

expose to the condition whereas the

dependent variable is the outcome

there's always a numb

with a dependent variable and that's how

you always can find it the question that

we're always trying to ask is does the

independent variable affect the

dependent variable and if so how much

does it affect it so as an example let's

say that I would like to study the

effect of calories on weight loss so

what I'm going to do is have one subject

to eat 2,000 calories another subject to

eat 1500 calories and maybe another one

eat a thousand calories and that is my

independent variable is that the number

of calories we consume will be different

from person to person and they do this

for two weeks and at the end of two

weeks I then measure their weight the

score they get on the weight is the

dependent variable so let's say one

actually gains a pound the first one who

ate 2,000 calories the person who ate

1500 calories they don't lose anything

they're the exact same weight they were

person who ate a thousand calories they

actually lose two pounds so the

independent variable did affect the

outcome it did affect the dependent

variable and that's basically what

experimental design is always trying to

do another type of design we have is

called longitudinal studies and

basically what a longitudinal study is

is that we're going to study you over a

period of time maybe not over your whole

lifetime like this but what we'd like to

do is find out if something changes

throughout your lifetime our biggest

problem with the longitudinal studies is

that they are very expensive and very

time-consuming

think about this if I want to study from

birth to ten years of age doesn't that

take me ten years to do this study and

meanwhile lots of things could have

changed we also have a problem because

people tend to drop out of longitudinal

studies so over the long period of time

how many people will drop away from that

study

now with medicine we do a lot of

longitudinal studies because we can

begin to study how what is the effect of

medicine over a given period of time so

you can do something like a diabetic

who's going to be taking insulin pretty

much their lives depending which type of

diabetic they are and there we can look

at development over period

the problem will again launch to studies

though is that they are expensive

they're very time consuming and we may

lose people so to fix that we have

something called cross-sectional studies

now a cross-sectional study what we're

going to do is take a whole bunch of

subjects at the same time and we're

going to be dividing them up and looking

at some specific aspect so in this case

what we have is subjects from a

population so let's just say that these

are all oh we're gonna look at people

who are 18 years of age and we're gonna

look at people who are thirty years of

age and what we're gonna be looking at

is lung cancer and so we're going to

look at people are 18 who smoked and

versus people who don't smoke so we're

gonna take this one group of 18s and

we're gonna look at the risk faster than

the disease and then we're going to take

thirty year olds when I look at the risk

factor and the Z's and we do this all on

the same day so what we're assuming is

that the difference between the person

at 18 and their lungs if they're smokers

and 30 if they continue to smoke that

whatever whatever happened is going to

have happened because of the time that

was there so cross-sectional studies are

much cheaper we can do them at one point

but we do have the problem in that there

are different people so why one person

seems to smoke all their lives and not

develop lung cancer and another person

smokes for a little time and develops

lung cancer that's not going to be

answered we're making some

generalizations but again we can't

always wait 10 years to get an answer to

a study but at the same point our

problem with this one is that we have

different people we're looking at we're

making the assumption that this 18 year

old is going to be equal to this

different 30 year old to solve that we

have sequential studies and basically

what we're going to have is a series of

studies that are going to be done over a

period of time where we're doing both

cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

at the same time and so this sort of

gives you a chart of how complex a study

like this is now the word cohort we tend

to use that

here in psychology and people don't

always know what that is a core word is

a group of people of something that is

related so you hear the word baby-boomer

all the time you hear the word

Generation Y millennium babies the Xers

those are chords there's something that

connects them all together in this case

it would be age so what we have here is

in we're gonna be looking at the year of

birth so people were born in 1994 versus

people born in 1996 and what we're going

to do in the year 2000 is that we're

gonna look at six year olds and we're

gonna look at eight year olds and we're

gonna be comparing them so this is the

cross-sectional right here because we're

talking about six and eight that's a two

year difference but then we're going to

come back two years later and we're

gonna look at eight year olds and ten

year olds and again here we're doing

basically a cross-sectional because

we're doing two ages but we can also now

look at how did the eight year old here

versus the year old here is there any

difference and that would have happened

because the six year old grew up by two

years and that's the longitudinal sort

of study and then we're gonna do the

same thing here when they're ten and

twelve

now that means is that we've been able

to do this study now in far less time

we're able to do it in four years but we

got a lot of information so we hope that

usually in sequential designs that we're

going to be able to get the same

information that might have taken us ten

years to do by doing it in this type of

format and yet we're still gonna be able

to the same people to be able to measure

their seen when they're eight and ten

and ten and twelve to get that

longitudinal it is a lot more expensive

but most people really feel that this is

sort of the best design when we're

talking about development over time now

another that's become much more popular

is a meta-analysis and I bring

meta-analysis in because I see this a

lot happening again in medicine and we

have a lot of our students who are going

to the medical programs and as you read

things they say this meta-analysis

decide this and the meta-analysis

decided that so what's a meta-analysis

well here's an example of an actual

meta-analysis right here and we're

looking at a bunch of different studies

and that's what a meta-analysis is we're

gonna take multiple studies and we're

gonna

crunch all their data together now we

couldn't really do meta-analysis until

recently because we just didn't really

have the computers who could do that now

we have these computers that could

really crunch these data together so

here you can be looking at here's you

know one study the Green is a different

study each one of these colors are sort

of different studies and we can begin to

see if these variables are repeated over

time and we can begin to see sort of a a

look that happens across time with this

but this meta-analysis has really been

very good because it helps us to really

understand sort of a bigger picture of

what's going on now the problem with the

meta-analysis is that we're only using

second hand data we don't collect

anything new it's all based on old

research

so while meta-analysis are really nice

we also to remember that this data is

not fresh lastly what we like to talk

about is the process of communicating

our results and basically since we are

again talking about mostly in the

medical fields we're going to use what's

called a peer review process and what

happens is is that here a paper is going

to be written by somebody so I've done

some study I've now got some information

I'm going to write my paper and I'm

gonna submit it to a journal now

remember we're not talking about any old

journal here we're talking about a

peer-reviewed journal again if you need

to understand more about this go back

and listen to that lecture on chapter 1

introduction of psychology now what

happens here is that that's been

submitted over here to the editor

they're then gonna take that and they're

going to hand it out to a whole bunch of

people who are going to look at that

paper determine whether or not it's good

better different they're going to review

it for accuracy validity for reliability

procedures they're gonna make comments

and they're going to give that back to

the editor who's going to perhaps give

it back to the author and the author may

have to make some changes and this

process will keep going around now the

thing is is that we keep going around in

this until we feel that the science is

right when we feel the science is right

then and only then will it get published

in a peer

you'd journal now this becomes important

because when things are published in

peer-reviewed journals we tend to think

of them as being the best science at

least the most accurate science of the

time now it doesn't mean that it has it

won't change over time because we learn

things and we say oh here's the

information we had and this was the best

we knew at the time you know I like to

joke about the dinosaurs we apparently

had the wrong dinosaur heads on many a

dinosaurs for a very long time and we

had to go switch the dinosaur heads

somewhere in the 80s or 90s they figured

that out and yeah we should think that

the tails dragged on the ground the

dinosaurs and now we know the tails

probably were up and above the ground I

always wondered about that dragon on the

ground wouldn't it scrape it up but you

know we now know it's actually up and

they were walking so things do change

over time but peer-reviewed journals are

important because when something comes

out of a peer-reviewed journal we tend

to feel like it was the best science at

that time and that it wasn't just

somebody guessing so this isn't going to

come out in Time magazine or USA Today

this is gonna come out in something like

the Journal of American medicine or JAMA

and that's one of the ones that we hear

a lot so on the news quite often they'll

be reporting tomorrow in JAMA they're

going to publish this book and so what

they're reporting on is some information

that has been received tested and we now

believe is accurate this one ends up our

first chapter here in developmental

psychology I will see you in class and

have a good day