El Cid - Spain's Greatest Knight Documentary

Summary

The video script narrates the life and military exploits of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known to history as 'El Cid'. Born around 1045 in Spain, El Cid was a nobleman who rose to prominence during the Reconquista, a period marked by Christian efforts to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. Initially a military commander for the Castilian king, he later served Muslim rulers and eventually carved out his own principality, notably capturing the city of Valencia in 1094. El Cid's legacy is complex, with his actions driven by both political and personal ambitions. Despite his controversial methods, he is celebrated for his military successes, particularly against the Almoravids, and his ability to navigate the intricate politics of 11th-century Spain. The video invites viewers to consider whether El Cid was a hero of the Spanish Reconquista or a self-interested opportunist, sparking a discussion on his multifaceted character and historical significance.

Takeaways

• 🏰 El Cid, born Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, was a prominent military leader and nobleman in medieval Spain, renowned for his conquest of Valencia in 1094.
• 🎖️ Known as 'El Campeador,' which means 'The Conqueror' or 'The Battler,' El Cid was a skilled tactician who never lost a major military engagement.
• 👑 Despite being a Christian, El Cid served both Christian and Muslim rulers during his career, reflecting the complex political landscape of 11th-century Spain.
• 🤝 El Cid's ability to navigate between Christian and Muslim kingdoms highlights his diplomatic skills and the hybrid society of the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista.
• 📜 The Historia Roderici, a Latin account compiled around 1120, provides invaluable information about El Cid's life after his exile in 1081.
• 🏛️ After capturing Valencia, El Cid established a multi-religious government that allowed Christians, Muslims, and Jews to coexist, although he did restore Christianity in the city.
• 🛡️ El Cid's military successes against the Almoravids were significant, as they were a consistent threat to Christian Spain and had been winning battles against other Christian forces.
• ⚔️ His conquest of Valencia was a remarkable achievement, but it was short-lived as the city was eventually lost to the Moors after his death.
• 🏙️ The myth of El Cid as a national hero was largely shaped by the epic poem 'El Poema de mio Cid,' which was created about fifty years after his death.
• 📚 The story of El Cid has been romanticized and used for political purposes, especially during the height of the Spanish Empire and in modern media, often simplifying his complex political affiliations.
• ⏳ The Reconquista continued long after El Cid's time, with the final victory coming in 1492 when the Christian Monarchs conquered Granada, marking the end of Muslim rule in Spain.

Q & A

Who was El Cid, and what is his significance in history?

El Cid, also known as Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, was a medieval Spanish military leader and nobleman. He is significant for his role in the Spanish Reconquista, particularly for his conquest of the city of Valencia from Muslim forces in 1094, which he ruled as an independent principality.

What was the political situation in Spain during the time of El Cid's birth?

The Spain of El Cid's birth was highly polarized, with Christian and Muslim kingdoms in constant conflict. The Christian Reconquista was underway, and the Iberian Peninsula was a patchwork of different political entities, including the Kingdom of Castile, the Kingdom of León, and several Muslim taifas.

How did the Almoravids impact the Reconquista and El Cid's military career?

The Almoravids, a zealous and militaristic Muslim movement from North Africa, intervened in the Iberian Peninsula in the late 11th century. Their arrival shifted the balance of power and led to several key battles, including the Battle of Sagrajas, where El Cid's forces were instrumental in defending against Almoravid advances.

What was the significance of the Battle of Valencia in El Cid's life?

The Battle of Valencia, which lasted nearly a year, culminated in El Cid's forces capturing the city on June 15, 1094. This marked a high point in his career, as he established himself as an independent ruler of a significant Christian principality.

How did El Cid's rule in Valencia reflect his multifaceted career?

El Cid's rule in Valencia demonstrated his ability to navigate the complex religious and political landscape of the time. He restored Christianity but maintained freedom of worship for Muslims and Jews, reflecting his experience operating in both Christian Spain and Muslim Al-Andalus.

What was the ultimate fate of the territories that El Cid conquered?

The territories that El Cid conquered, particularly Valencia, were not secure. After his death, the Almoravids continued their attacks, and by 1110, most of the territories were re-occupied by the Moors. Valencia was not definitively reconquered for the Christian cause until 1238 by James I of Aragon.

Why is El Cid considered a national hero in Spain?

El Cid is considered a national hero due to his military prowess and his role in the Spanish Reconquista. His life and exploits have been immortalized in the epic poem 'El Poema de mio Cid,' which has contributed to his status as a symbol of Spanish nationalism.

How did El Cid's political affiliations change throughout his life?

El Cid's political affiliations were complex and changed throughout his life. He started as a military commander under the kings of Castile, then served Muslim kingdoms, and finally became an independent ruler of Valencia.

What is the historical context of the term 'Reconquista'?

The term 'Reconquista' refers to the long process of Christians in the northern kingdoms of Spain retaking territory from the Muslim Moors who controlled the southern and central parts of the Iberian Peninsula.

What was the role of the Visigoths in the early history of the Iberian Peninsula?

The Visigoths were a Germanic tribe that established the Visigothic Kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula after the fall of the Roman Empire. Their kingdom was culturally and politically sophisticated but was eventually defeated by the Moors in the early 8th century.

How did the society in medieval Spain during El Cid's time reflect a hybrid of Christian and Muslim cultures?

Medieval Spain was a region with two distinct but intertwined cultures. The south was dominated by Arabs and Muslims, producing great thinkers of Arab civilization, while the north and northwest was controlled by Christian states. There were also Mozarabs and Muwallads, Christians living under Muslim rule and vice-versa, indicating a hybrid society.

What were the circumstances that led to El Cid's banishment from Castile in 1081?

El Cid was banished from Castile in 1081 following a complex series of events, including a conflict with the taifa of Granada and a civil war within the taifa of Toledo. His enemies at the Castilian court exploited these incidents to undermine him, leading to his exile.

Outlines

00:00

🏰 El Cid's Early Life and the Reconquista

The first paragraph introduces the historical context of Spain in the 11th century, focusing on the life of Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known as El Cid. It outlines the siege of Valencia in 1093 and the subsequent year-long battle that led to its capture by Christian forces. El Cid's background is explored, including his noble lineage and the political landscape of Spain, which was divided between Christian and Muslim factions. The paragraph sets the stage for El Cid's rise to prominence amidst the struggle known as the Reconquista.

05:02

🕌 The Iberian Peninsula: A Land of Two Cultures

This paragraph delves into the cultural and political split of the Iberian Peninsula, describing the coexistence and conflict between Christian and Muslim societies. It discusses the architectural and intellectual advancements in the Muslim south, contrasted with the Christian north's Romanesque cathedrals and military campaigns. The hybrid society, including Mozarabs and Muwallads, is highlighted, illustrating the complexity of identity during this period. The paragraph also touches on the civil war within the emirate of Cordoba and its impact on the balance of power.

10:06

🗺️ El Cid's Military Service and Rise to Prominence

The third paragraph details El Cid's early military career, his service to the Castilian court, and his involvement in various battles that shaped the political landscape of Spain. It discusses his knighting, experiences at the Battle of Graus, and the complex interplay of alliances and rivalries among the Christian kingdoms and Muslim taifas. The paragraph also covers the division of Ferdinand I's kingdoms among his sons and the subsequent conflicts that arose, leading to El Cid's rise as a military commander and his eventual title of El Campeador.

15:10

🛡️ El Cid's Exile and Service to Muslim Rulers

This paragraph narrates El Cid's fall from favor and subsequent exile following political intrigues and military engagements. It describes his service to the Muslim ruler of the taifa of Zaragoza and the acquisition of his infamous name, El Cid, from the Arab title Sídi. The text highlights El Cid's diplomatic skills and his ability to navigate the intricate political landscape of 11th-century Spain, emphasizing the interconnectedness of Christian and Muslim societies during the Reconquista.

20:12

🏺 El Cid's Victories and the Almoravid Threat

The fifth paragraph focuses on El Cid's military successes while in the service of the Muslim taifa of Zaragoza, his victories at Almenar and Morella, and the subsequent growth of his reputation. It discusses the Almoravid movement's rise to power and their intervention in the Iberian Peninsula following the fall of Toledo. The paragraph also describes the pivotal Battle of Sagrajas, its aftermath, and El Cid's reconciliation with Alfonso VI, leading to his return to the Castilian court.

25:46

🏰 The Siege of Valencia and El Cid's Independent Rule

This paragraph details El Cid's ambitious campaign to conquer Valencia, his establishment of an independent principality, and his governance that balanced Christian and Muslim populations. It describes the year-long siege, the defeat of the Almoravid relief force, and the eventual surrender of Valencia. The text also highlights El Cid's military triumphs against subsequent Almoravid attacks, solidifying his legacy as a formidable military leader.

30:48

🏺 El Cid's Legacy and the Continued Reconquista

The final paragraph reflects on El Cid's death and the ephemeral nature of his conquests, noting the reversion of Valencia to Muslim control after his death. It outlines the continued Reconquista efforts throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, culminating in the Christian conquest of Granada in 1492. The paragraph also explores the mythology and cultural significance of El Cid, from his burial and the creation of El Poema de mio Cid to his portrayal in modern media, and invites reflection on his complex legacy as both a hero and an opportunist.

Keywords

💡El Cid

El Cid, also known as Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, is the central figure of the video. He was a medieval Spanish military leader and nobleman renowned for his military prowess and the conquest of Valencia. The term 'El Cid' is derived from the Arabic 'Sídi', meaning 'My lord'. His life and actions are the focus of the video, which explores his role in the Spanish Reconquista, his shifts in allegiance, and his legacy as a national hero of Spain.

💡Reconquista

The Reconquista refers to the centuries-long process by which Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula gradually retook territory from Muslim rule in the south. The video highlights El Cid's significant role in this process, particularly his conquest of Valencia, which was a major Christian victory and a pivotal moment in the Reconquista.

💡Almoravids

The Almoravids were a Berber Muslim dynasty originating from the western Sahara that eventually ruled over a significant portion of the Iberian Peninsula during the time of El Cid. They are important to the video's narrative as they represent the primary Muslim opposition to El Cid's military campaigns and the broader Christian Reconquista efforts.

💡Valencia

Valencia is a city on the eastern coast of Spain that was under Muslim control until El Cid's conquest in 1094. The city's siege and capture were a significant military achievement for El Cid and marked a turning point in the Reconquista. The video discusses the year-long siege, the city's fall, and its subsequent rule under El Cid.

💡Castile

Castile is a historical region of Spain, and its kings feature prominently in the video as the rulers under whom El Cid initially served. The kingdom of Castile plays a critical role in the video's narrative, as it is the power base from which El Cid was exiled and to which he had complex and shifting allegiances throughout his life.

💡Alfonso VI

Alfonso VI was the King of León and later King of Castile and León, a key monarch during El Cid's lifetime. The video describes their relationship as tumultuous, with El Cid serving as a military commander under Alfonso, being exiled, and later reconciling with him. Alfonso's reign and policies are integral to understanding the political backdrop of El Cid's actions.

💡Toledo

Toledo was a major Muslim-held city in central Spain that was captured by Alfonso VI in 1085, marking a significant shift in the balance of power during the Reconquista. The video uses the capture of Toledo to illustrate the escalating conflict between Christian forces and the Muslim Almoravids, which ultimately leads to El Cid's increased military engagements.

💡Zaragoza

Zaragoza was a taifa, or Muslim-ruled principality, in northeastern Spain, where El Cid served after his exile from Castile. The city and its rulers are important to the video as they represent a period in El Cid's life when he fought for Muslim rulers, showcasing his complex political and military career.

💡Mozarabs and Muwallads

Mozarabs and Muwallads were terms used to describe Christians living under Muslim rule and Muslims living under Christian rule, respectively, in the Iberian Peninsula. The video uses these terms to illustrate the hybrid society that existed in medieval Spain, where El Cid's ability to navigate both Christian and Muslim worlds was a key aspect of his career.

💡Battle of Sagrajas

The Battle of Sagrajas, fought in 1086, was a significant military engagement between the Christian forces of Castile and León and the Almoravids. The video highlights this battle as a turning point that led to El Cid's reconciliation with Alfonso VI and his reintegration into Castilian military efforts.

💡Alfonso's Reunification

Alfonso's Reunification refers to the efforts of King Alfonso VI to consolidate the Christian kingdoms under his rule, including Castile, León, and Galicia. The video discusses how these efforts, along with the political instability that followed, influenced El Cid's military career and his rise to prominence.

Highlights

In July 1093, Spanish troops laid siege to Valencia, marking a significant event in the Reconquista.

The siege of Valencia lasted for a year, showcasing the prolonged conflict during this period.

Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, known as 'El Cid', led the Christians to victory and captured Valencia on June 15, 1094.

El Cid was born around 1045 in Vivar, with a complex family background involving the nobility of Castile.

The Iberian Peninsula was culturally and politically divided between Christian and Muslim regions during El Cid's time.

El Cid's early life was marked by the volatile Reconquista period and the fragmentation of the Muslim emirate of Cordoba.

Rodrigo Díaz was raised in the Castilian court and was possibly present at the Battle of Graus in 1063.

After the death of Ferdinand I, the kingdoms of Castile and León were divided among his sons, leading to internal conflicts.

El Cid was known as El Campeador and was a military commander under King Sancho of Castile.

The Battle of Golpejera in 1072 was a pivotal moment where El Cid helped Sancho unite the kingdoms of Castile and León.

El Cid's banishment from Castile in 1081 began a new, dynamic phase of his life, which is well-documented in historical accounts.

He offered his services to various Christian lords before serving the Muslim ruler of Zaragoza, highlighting the complex political landscape.

El Cid's name is derived from the Arab title of Sídi, reflecting his service under Muslim lords and the hybrid society of Iberia.

The Battle of Almenar in 1082 and the Battle of Morella in 1084 were significant victories that enhanced El Cid's reputation.

The Almoravids, a zealous Muslim movement from North Africa, began influencing the balance of power in Spain from 1086.

El Cid's military successes against the Almoravids in the 1090s were unprecedented and pivotal in the Reconquista.

The conquest of Valencia in 1094 by El Cid was a remarkable achievement, establishing a Christian principality in the region.

El Cid's rule in Valencia was characterized by religious tolerance and a blend of Christian and Muslim governance.

Despite his military prowess, El Cid's political career was marked by shifting allegiances and opportunism.

The mythology around El Cid, including 'El Poema de mio Cid', has significantly influenced the popular perception of him as a national hero.

The reality of El Cid's life was more complex than the myth, navigating the intricate politics of Christian and Muslim Spain.

Transcripts

It is July 1093, a force of Spanish troops lay siege to Valencia in eastern Spain, attacking

the Muslim forces who hold the city, The fighting lasts for a year, in which time

a relief force from North Africa conclusively defeated,

Finally, on the 15th of June 1094, the Christians capture the city of Valencia* from its Muslim

occupants, Their leader rides into the city, victorious

at last, His name Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar The man known

to history as ‘El Cid’

The man known to history as El Cid was reputedly born sometime around 1045, in the village

of Vivar near Burgos, in northern Spain, although he was born as Rodrigo Díaz, the name El

Cid was one he acquired, as a result of the tangled mythology which characterised his

later life.

His father was Diego Laínez, a minor member of the nobility of the kingdom of Castile,

the Spanish kingdom centred on northern and central Spain in the late middle ages, he

may have been a younger son of Flaín Munoz, a count of León around the year 1000, and

it is also possible that Diego fought on the side of the King of Castile, Ferdinand I,

against the Kingdom of Navarre in north-east Spain in 1054, if this was the case, he might

well have been rewarded with land around Vivar, for his service during the war, in which case

Rodrigo would probably have been born elsewhere, and later became associated with Vivar as

he grew into his late childhood and early teenage years in the region.

Rodrigo’s mother was Teresa Rodríguez Álvarez de Amaya, she was a descendant of a member

of the higher aristocracy of northern Spain, and as such the young Rodrigo was born into

a relatively prominent, noble and landed family within the kingdom of Castile, despite later

suggestions that he came from humble beginnings.

The Spain that the future El Cid was born into, was highly polarised, as the Roman Empire

had collapsed in the fifth century AD, a Germanic tribe known as the Visigoths, meaning ‘Western

Goths’, had occupied the bulk of the Roman provinces of Hispania on the Iberian Peninsula,

here they established the Visigothic Kingdom, the most culturally and politically sophisticated

of the supposedly ‘barbarian’ kingdoms to have succeeded the Romans as the rulers

of Western Europe.

But despite their sophistication, the Visigoths were to have their kingdom destroyed in the

early eighth century, a campaign which began in the mid-seventh century, as the Arab followers

of the prophet Mohammad, had burst out of the Arabian Peninsula, conquering much of

the known world east into Persia, north into Turkey, and west across North Africa, through

Egypt and the other states of the Maghreb.

By the early eighth century, they were in Morocco, then in 711 AD, they crossed the

Straits of Gibraltar with their Berber allies from North Africa, and within months, soundly

defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Guadalete, as a consequence most of the Iberian Peninsula

quickly fell under the control of the Moors, as the Christians of Europe termed the Muslims

who conquered Spain and North Africa.

However, pockets of Christian power remained in Spain, particularly in the north where

Pelagius, a former Visigothic general, established the kingdom of Asturias in the 720s, and inflicted

the first military defeat on the Moors, at the Battle of Covadonga in 722 AD, in the

north of the country near the Cantabrian Mountains, thus, within just years of the Muslim conquest

of Spain, the Christian Reconquista, as the long reconquest of the country has become

known, was underway, it would take nearly 800 years to accomplish fully, and few individuals

were as central to the Reconquista as El Cid.

In the centuries that followed, the Iberian Peninsula was transformed into a patchwork

of different political entities, Asturias became the first of the major Christian kingdoms

and principalities to emerge, but others followed, as the Christian power base in the north and

northwest of the Iberian Peninsula was consolidated, notably the County of Portugal, the Kingdom

of Navarre, the County of León, the Kingdom of Aragon, the County of Barcelona and the

Kingdom of Castile.

These burgeoning kingdoms found themselves in constant conflict with the Moors, who ruled

a cohesive kingdom or emirate, spanning the south and central parts of Iberia, or Al-Andalus

as they termed it.

This emirate or caliphate was ruled from the city of Cordoba in the south, where the impressive

Mosque of Cordoba still stands, as an imposing testament to the Spanish empire of the Moors

and its cultural sophistication.

As this consolidation of Christian power occurred in the north, Medieval Spain became a region

with two distinct cultures, while the south was dominated by the Arabs and produced some

of the greatest thinkers of Arab civilization, the north and northwest was controlled by

an advancing number of Christian states, who erected cathedrals built in the new Romanesque

architectural form, as they pushed the Muslim powers further southwards.

Yet this was also a hybrid society, and many Christians found themselves living under Muslim

rule and vice-versa at various points, these people became known as Mozarabs and Muwallads,

thus, two cultures with their own political entities, emerged in Iberia between 700 and

1000 AD, one Latin and Christian, the other Arab and Muslim, consequently a traveller

through the Iberian Peninsula in the tenth century, would have passed from a Latin or

Spanish speaking north, to an Arab speaking south, with different religions being practiced

and different social, political and economic systems predominating.

However, as El Cid was born, the world of Christian and Muslim Spain was changing rapidly,

between 1009 and 1031 a ruinous civil war within the emirate of Cordoba had created

enormous instability in the Moorish parts of Spain and had weakened the Muslims militarily,

more seriously the emirate began to fragment from a cohesive, unified kingdom that had

offered strong opposition to the Christian kingdoms of the north into a number of smaller

principalities known as taifas.

There were over a dozen of these taifas by the time El Cid was born, in the mid-eleventh

century, ruling small portions of the former Muslim emirate, the most significant were

those of Zaragoza in the east of Spain, that of Toledo which ruled a large territory of

arid land in Spain’s central Meseta region to the south of the Kingdom of Castile, the

taifa of Badajoz encompassing much of what is now Portugal and the taifas of Granada,

Malaga and Cordoba in the south.

This disunity and fragmentation amongst the Muslims of Spain, occurred at a time when

Christian Europe was entering a period of resurgence, as new Crusades against heretical

peoples in northern and eastern Europe and even against the Muslims of the Holy Land,

were being planned and initiated.

El Cid’s life from a very early date was characterised by the brand of military service

that was expected of a Spanish knight during this most volatile period of the Reconquista,

he was raised at the Castilian court, as part of the entourage of the Castilian prince,

Sancho, the eldest son of the King of León and Count of Castile, Ferdinand I.

The young Rodrigo was allegedly present at the Battle of Graus near Huesca in 1063, when

a Castilian army defeated a force sent by the King of Aragon, Ramiro I, it is unclear

exactly how old El Cid was at this time and whether he played any part in the fighting

or was simply present as a page or retainer of some kind, however, he was knighted around

this time and it is likely that he was in his late teens or early adult years.

The battle would also have exposed the young Rodrigo, to the complexities of Spanish politics,

Ferdinand had led Castile to war against Aragon on this occasion, in defence of the Moorish

prince of the taifa of Zaragoza to the east of Castile, a vassal of Castile at the time,

here was early experience for the young knight, that diplomatic relations in Spain were not

decided solely according to religion, and the rulers of the many principalities and

taifas of the peninsula, might often ally with the opposing religion against people

of their own religion if it was politically advantageous, indeed, it was a maxim El Cid

was to live his life by.

When Ferdinand I died in 1065, his kingdoms did not pass undivided to his eldest son,

Sancho, but were divided amongst his male children, thus, Sancho became king of Castile,

another brother received the kingdom of León and a third, Garcia, received the kingdom

of Galicia in the northwest of Spain, thus, where Ferdinand had succeeded in unifying

a large block of northern and western Spain under his rule, these lands were now divided

out amongst his sons, Christian power was further weakened throughout the region in

the years ahead, as conflicts began to develop between the three sons, particularly between

Sancho of Castile and Alfonso of León.

Rodrigo benefited from having been raised a childhood companion of the young Sancho,

when the latter became King of Castile in 1065.

Tradition has it, that he raised his friend to the position of armiger regis or royal

standard-bearer and made him one of his senior military commanders, however, it is unclear

if this is true, there are no official documents of the time to corroborate this and it would

have been an extraordinarily lofty promotion for a man who was still only twenty years

of age at the very most at that time.

If he did receive these honours, they were attained as war was looming between Castile

and León, and within months of the division of Ferdinand’s kingdoms, tensions had arisen

between Sancho and Alfonso, these culminated in 1068 in the Battle of Llantada near the

River Pisuerga in northern Spain, at which the Castilian forces defeated Alfonso’s

Aragonese army.

Further years of war followed, before a decisive strike was made by Castile at the Battle of

Golpejera on the River Carrión in central Spain, this battle commenced at dawn on a

January morning in 1072 and was initially going in favour of Alfonso and his Aragonese

army, as the Castilians were driven from the field, however, the following morning, having

been rallied by El Cid, Sancho and his forces went on the attack again.

In the resulting encounter Alfonso’s armies were soundly defeated, the king himself was

captured and eventually exiled to the court of the Muslim ruler of the taifa of Toledo,

al Mam’un, and Sancho now took over his kingdoms, once again uniting the kingdoms

of Castile and León, and also Galicia and Portugal, which he prized from his other brother

Garcia shortly afterwards.

It is from this time that Rodrigo seems to have become known amongst Spanish Christians

as El Campeador, meaning the Conqueror or the Battler, a name which he would use for

the remainder of his life, hence we find El Cid signing a document which has survived

with his autograph signature as ‘Rodrigo El Campeador’ in 1098, towards the end of

his life.

Yet as successful as Sancho’s policy of reunification had been by 1072, he faced considerable

opposition to his rule amongst various elements within the lay and ecclesiastical lordships

of León, he also faced the hostility of his sister, Urraca, who later in 1072, began plotting

with certain contingents of the nobility and military at Zamora, a rebellion consequently

emerged from this part of León and when Sancho headed there to besiege the city in the autumn

of 1072, he was murdered outside the walls on the 7th of October, by a Zamoran knight,

Bellido Dolfos.

The exiled Alfonso now moved swiftly to take advantage of these developments, already by

December 1072, he had returned to Castile from his exile in Toledo and quickly had himself

made King of Castile and León.

In January Alfonso VI, as he now was, had his brother, Garcia, put in prison, where

he would remain until his death in 1090, ensuring there was no contender roaming free for opposition

to his rule to coalesce around.

Legend has it that El Cid forced Alfonso to swear an oath in the Church of St Agatha in

Burgos at this time, that he had not been complicit in the revolt at Zamora and Sancho’s

murder, whatever the truth of this, it is very possible that this never happened, it

is certainly clear that the changed circumstances were difficult to negotiate for El Campeador,

just months earlier he was the rising military commander of the armies of Sancho, who had

united the Kingdoms of Castile, León and Galicia, now he had to find a new place at

the court of Alfonso, the man he had helped defeat and force into exile, less than a year

earlier.

Nevertheless, it is relatively clear that El Cid was able to quickly ingratiate himself

with the new monarch, in the years ahead, he became one of the leading military commanders

of Alfonso’s expanding kingdoms and there is evidence which indicates that by 1075,

the king trusted him sufficiently to appoint him as a judge, presiding over some disputes

which had arisen in Asturias in the far northwest of Spain.

More significantly when Rodrigo married around this time, his wife was none other than Jimena

Díaz, a Leónese noblewoman and a third cousin of the king, the king would not have sanctioned

the marriage of a near kinswoman to El Cid at this time, had the knight not have been

of high standing in Alfonso’s estimation.

All of this occurred at a time when Alfonso’s power was ever growing, in 1076 the kingdom

of Navarre, which covered the Basque country in northeast Spain, was carved up between

a number of powers, with the Kingdom of Aragon receiving a portion and Alfonso annexing the

Rioja region.

He now ruled an extensive kingdom stretching all the way from the Atlantic coast in what

is now northern Portugal and northwest Spain, east through northern and central Spain as

far as the Pyrenees in the northeast of the peninsula, moreover, he had obtained the vassalage

of a number of the neighbouring Muslim taifas including that of Zaragoza to the east, Toledo

to the south of Castile in central Spain and even Seville and Granada in the far south,

each of these paid tribute to Alfonso, emphasising the breadth of his power in Spain by the end

of the 1070s.

It was owing to developments amongst one of these taifas, that El Cid’s fall from royal

favour began, in 1079 El Campeador was sent to Seville as the king’s representative

to collect the taxes and vassalage dues, known as parias, which were owed from the king there,

during this mission, he became entangled in a conflict between the taifa of Seville and

the taifa of Granada, when the latter attacked Seville, seemingly with the acquiescence of

a Castilian nobleman, Garcia Ordonez, who had been sent to Granada at the same time

as El Cid had gone to Seville on a similar mission to collect the parias owed by the

taifa there.

El Cid, seemingly unaware of Ordonez’s complicity in Granada’s assault on Seville, now campaigned

with the Moors of Seville and helped them stave off the Granadan incursion at the Battle

of Cabra, at this Ordonez was captured and the whole episode seems to have inflamed a

faction of the Castilian nobility, who were now embittered towards El Cid.

The traditional account of these events suggests that this led directly to Rodrigo’s banishment

from Alfonso’s court, but there is little reason to think that this is what happened,

in reality, he was still there and in command of parts of the Castilian army a year later,

moreover, Alfonso could hardly have rebuked him for simply defending his ally, the King

of Seville, rather it was Garcia Ordonez whose actions had been inflammatory.

Nevertheless conspiracies against El Cid now seem to have been underway and when El Campeador

repulsed an invasion into Castile by a brigade of troops operating out of Toledo in 1080,

during a civil war within that taifa, the incident appears to have been exploited by

his enemies at the Castilian court to undermine him.

The incident seemingly occurred, as complex power shifts were occurring at Alfonso’s

court, over high levels of taxation and other issues, as a consequence, the king elected

to use one of his senior nobles and commanders as a scapegoat, to placate a faction of unruly

nobles, early in 1081, using the Toledo incident as a pretext, El Cid was banished from the

Castilian realms.

El Cid’s exile from the court of Alfonso VI in 1081, ushered in the most dynamic, interesting

and remarkable period of his life, it is also that for which we have the most evidence available,

the details of his early life and career in the 1060s and 1070s often being based on much

later accounts, which are often little more than fables and which regularly offer conflicting

versions of events.

However, we possess one extensive historical account which provides invaluable information

on his life after 1081, written by a very near contemporary of El Cid’s, the Historia

Roderici or History of Rodrigo, also titled the Gesta Roderici Campi Docti meaning the

Deeds of Rodrigo El Campeador, this was compiled in Latin in about 1120, twenty years after

the death of El Cid, and although it contains little information on his early life, it is

an invaluable account of his life following his exile in 1081 up to his death in 1099.

El Campeador now went in search of a new home, he first offered his services as a general

to the Christian Count of Barcelona and perhaps also King Sancho of the Kingdom of Aragon,

but having been refused by these Christian lords, he turned to the Muslim ruler of the

taifa of Zaragoza, Al-Muqtadir, who was succeeded shortly after El Cid’s arrival there by

his son, Almutumán.

His decision to do so was surely a simple process of elimination, Alfonso had united

the bulk of the Spanish principalities under his rule and with the exception of Barcelona

and Aragon, El Campeador really had few options, other than to enter the service of one of

the many Muslim rulers of Al-Andalus, similarly it was not unusual for Christian nobles to

seek refuge at the courts of the Muslim taifas during the eleventh century, a fact which

emphasises the hybridity of the society of Christians and Muslims in Iberia during the

Reconquista, indeed Alfonso himself, prior to attaining the Castilian crown, had spent

time in exile at the Muslim court of Toledo.

Moreover, eleventh-century Spain was a land of intricate diplomacy and El Cid would have

been highly familiar with the authorities in Zaragoza before his arrival there in 1081,

indeed the Historia Roderici contains considerable instances of various Muslim taifas and Christian

principalities employing messengers and diplomats to petition others for aid in military ventures

and negotiations over war and peace, in a way which emphasises the interconnectedness

of these many small kingdoms, El Cid, as somebody who straddled the Christian and Muslim world

of central Spain so effectively, must have been a skilled and shrewd diplomat.

It is from this period that El Campeador’s more infamous name originates, El Cid is doubtlessly

derived from the Arab title of Sídi, meaning ‘My lord’, consequently the famous name

of El Cid was born during Rodrigo Díaz’s service under the Muslim lords of Al-Andalus.

El Cid spent several years in the service of the Muslim taifa of Zaragoza, during which

he gained a reputation for his victories in defending Almutumán’s kingdom of Zaragoza,

not just against encroachments by the Kingdom of Aragon to the north and the Count of Barcelona

to the east, but also an internal power struggle against the Muslim ruler’s brother, Almundir,

who had established a breakaway kingdom at Lérida roughly midway between Zaragoza and

Barcelona.

A number of noteworthy victories at the time, added to El Cid’s renown throughout Iberia,

in 1082 he won a significant victory against the rival prince of Lérida’s troops at

Almenar just to the northwest of Lérida, roughly equidistant between Zaragoza and Barcelona,

he also captured the Count of Barcelona, Berenguer Ramon II, who had allied with the taifa of

Lérida, it is unclear exactly what happened with the Count following the battle, but eventually

he was returned to Barcelona, most likely after paying a substantial ransom for his

release.

The Battle of Almenar also led to the production of the first of many works lionising El Cid’s

reputation as a military commander, so many of which have shaped the mythology about Rodrigo

Díaz over the centuries, the Carmen Campi Doctoris, meaning The Song of the Campeador

or The Song of the Conqueror is an anonymous Latin poem composed in the months after the

battle, here, in the opening stanzas, there was a clear effort to depict El Cid as the

equal of the great warriors of Greek and Roman mythology:

“We can tell about the deeds of the warriors, Paris and Pyrrhus, and also Aeneas

That many poets in their honour have written.

But what joy have the pagan stories if they lose their value due to their antiquity?

Then let’s sing about Prince Rodrigo About these new battles”

Further descriptions depict El Cid riding into battle with a gold and silver helmet

and a shield featuring an image of a golden dragon, the myth of El Cid was already well

under way even during Rodrigo Díaz’s own lifetime.

Two years later in 1084, El Cid led Almutamán’s forces against Almundir and King Sancho of

Aragon at the Battle of Morella near Tortosa, the conflict here occurred after an offensive

foray by Rodrigo to try and seize the castle of Morella, in preparation for doing so, he

occupied the castle of Olocau del Rey to the north of Morella, in response Almundir and

King Sancho elected to attack El Cid at Olocau, the engagement occurred in mid-August 1084,

it ended in victory again for El Cid and several of the senior members of the Aragonese nobility

were captured, further weakening Almundir’s position and no doubt leading to further ransoms

which paid for Almutamán’s continuing financing of El Cid’s armies out of Zaragoza.

These internal conflicts, however, over lands in Catalonia, Aragon and Zaragoza were ultimately

small regional squabbles when compared with what was to occur in the second half of the

1080s, back in Castile and León Alfonso VI had gone on the offensive following El Cid’s

banishment in 1081, now in 1085 he conquered the city of Toledo, reducing the major Muslim

taifa of central Spain to Christian rule.

This was a seismic shift in the balance of power between Christians and Muslims in Spain,

Toledo was located in the geographical centre of the Iberian Peninsula and its seizure indicated

that the Christian powers, after three-hundred years of Muslim rule in Spain, were now pushing

the Moors down towards the south of the country, however, the capture of the town did not go

without a serious response, and it came from the Almoravids in North Africa.

The Almoravid movement most likely had its origins in what is now modern-day Senegal

where a Muslim missionary, Ibn Yasin, established it in the late 1030s, a zealous and militaristic

branch of Islam, it aspired to religious purity and jihad or holy war, to extend the Muslim

religion into new countries and defend it where it was under attack, by the 1070s the

movement had established control over the entire Western Sahara region and north into

Morocco, where the city of Marrakech was founded as the new capital

of the movement.

By the end of the 1070s one of the Almoravids’ leaders, Yusuf Ibn Tashufin had extended their

authority north as far as Tangiers and east into parts of modern-day Algeria around the

Atlas Mountains, here was an ascendant and aggressive Muslim power extending its control

over a vast swathe of northwest Africa on the doorstep of Spain, or Al-Andalus as the

Almoravids viewed it.

It was not long after Yusuf conquered parts of the southern Mediterranean in Morocco,

that he began receiving emissaries from the Muslim taifas of Al-Andalus imploring this

new warlord of the Maghreb to cross the Straits of Gibraltar to aid the Muslim cause in Spain,

while he was consolidating his control of Morocco, he had declined these invites, but

the fall of Toledo in 1085 swiftly changed his mind, now in the summer of 1086 he landed

with a sizeable army of Berber and African troops at Algeciras in the Bay of Gibraltar.

Yusuf quickly established a large alliance of the princes of the Muslim taifas of southern

Spain, including those of Malaga, Seville and Granada, there was little love lost between

these new found allies, as a zealous religious warrior Yusuf viewed the taifa princes as

indolent layabouts who had violated the Quran through their lifestyles and failures to engage

in holy war against the Christians of the north, to the princes, Yusuf was little more

than a provincial barbarian, but one whose armies they needed if they were to survive

Alfonso’s onslaughts.

Those armies were indeed needed, having conquered Toledo in 1085, Alfonso had turned his attention

east in 1086 towards Zaragoza, thus when news reached the King of Castile and León of the

arrival of the Almoravid warlord to Spain, he was campaigning against the taifa of Zaragoza

by whom El Cid was employed.

Alfonso now quickly abandoned his military operations at Zaragoza and formed an alliance

with King Sancho of Aragon, to try to withstand the invasion of the African Berbers, they

marched southwest and eventually met with Yusuf’s combined Berber and Moorish armies

at Sagrajas just to the north of Badajoz, near the modern-day border of Spain and Portugal.

The Battle of Sagrajas on the 23rd of October 1086 ended in total defeat for the Christian

armies, tens of thousands of men were said to have fought in the conflict, though this

was more likely to have been just in the thousands, several thousand Castilian and Aragonese troops

were said to have been lost and Alfonso only barely escaped with his life, moreover, much

of the Castilian and Leónese nobility and knightly class were killed, central and northern

Spain now lay exposed to an Almoravid advance.

And yet nothing catastrophic occurred, an outbreak of unrest in North Africa quickly

drew Yusuf back to Morocco, but it was not his last engagement in Al-Andalus, therefore

the most immediate consequence of the loss of the Battle of Sagrajas was Alfonso’s

decision to reconcile with his former commander, El Campeador, or as the Moors knew him, El

Cid, by the summer of 1087 Rodrigo had returned to the Castilian court, where he spent the

next few months overseeing various military commands, strengthening the defences of Burgos

and the surrounding region, and preparing for a renewed offensive into eastern Spain.

It was here in the region east to Zaragoza, Barcelona and in particular slightly further

to the south towards the long-held Muslim stronghold of Valencia, that the last ten

years of El Cid’s life would be associated with, by 1088 Rodrigo had convinced Alfonso

to allocate further military resources to the region, now that the Almoravid threat

had temporarily abated, thus, in the spring of 1088 El Cid led a large Castilian army

east towards Valencia, ostensibly to reduce the region in Alfonso’s name, but there

is little doubt that by now El Cid had ambitions to rule of his own.

These ambitions certainly explain his actions in the east in the months that followed, having

encountered the Count of Barcelona in the region, he dislodged him and sent him back

north to Catalonia, El Cid then began extracting parias or taxes and vassalage dues from the

Muslim ruler of the region around Valencia on the Mediterranean seaboard, but instead

of sending these back to Alfonso in Castile, El Cid retained these considerable sums of

money himself.

These were hardly the actions of a servant who was loyal to the King of Castile, but

it is also possible that an agreement had been reached between himself and Alfonso,

that if he could reduce the region around Valencia, Rodrigo could effectively rule it

himself, the advantage for Alfonso being that it would create an allied buffer state, while

he himself prepared for the inevitable second onslaught by Yusuf and the Almoravids from

the south.

Concern over the Almoravids was wise, as in 1089 Yusuf and his Berber armies returned

to Spain in substantial numbers, however, this time Yusuf’s frustrations with the

taifa princes of Malaga, Seville, Granada and the other principalities of the south,

particularly the willingness with which they had re-established diplomatic relations with

Alfonso in the aftermath of the battle of Sagrajas, would lead Yusuf to begin conquering

and assimilating the taifas of Al-Andalus into the wider Almoravid Empire of North Africa,

thus, from the late 1080s, strong centralised rule was being restored to the Muslim controlled

parts of Spain and by the early 1090s, Yusuf would be looking to advance northeast into

eastern Spain, to seize the rich Mediterranean ports there such as Valencia.

It was these movements which led to the first clashes between El Cid and the Almoravids

and inadvertently also Rodrigo’s second dismissal from the employ of King Alfonso

of Castile, in 1089, just months after the renewed Almoravid onslaught of Al-Andalus,

the Castle of Aledo near the Mediterranean coast in the province of Murcia was besieged

by the Almoravids, this was a relatively wayward possession of Alfonso’s near El Cid’s

area of command in eastern Spain, accordingly as he made his way to relieve the attack himself,

Alfonso also sent word to El Campeador to join him to assist in the campaign.

However, in the ensuing days, El Cid failed to meet with Alfonso, it is unclear if this

was a deliberate act of disobedience, or if the Conquerer simply could not locate Alfonso’s

forces in the Murcian countryside, but the result was the second and final split between

the King and his mighty subject, in 1089 El Cid was exiled yet again from Castile, moreover,

his properties back home around Burgos were confiscated and taken into crown ownership

through attainder, a punishment usually reserved for crimes which were deemed treasonous.

From this point onwards in 1089, El Cid became entirely his own man, he would not seek to

enter the service of another ruler as he had done following his first expulsion from Castile

in 1081, instead, with the military forces he had built up in eastern Spain in the late

1080s and with his reputation as a brilliant military leader he would operate as an independent

figure and seek to carve out his own dominion in eastern Spain.

In 1089 he already had a strong base to work from, he had forces in eastern Spain and continued

to collect the parias he had been extracting from several of the local Muslim rulers in

return for not attacking them, including Alqadir, the ruler of the city of Valencia itself,

a rich port city with extensive trade revenue, he also forged an alliance with Almundir the

Muslim prince of Lérida, with whom he had fought so extensively when in the service

of Zaragoza in the 1080s.

He spent the next few months consolidating his position and building up his military

capabilities, then in the spring of 1090, we suddenly find him invading the territory

of his erstwhile ally in Lérida, against both Almundir and the neighbouring County

of Barcelona.

A decisive clash occurred at Tébar near Morello in May 1090 at which El Cid achieved his second

resounding victory over a combined army of the forces of Lérida and Barcelona, incredibly

Count Ramon of Barcelona was also captured again by El Cid’s victorious forces, as

he had been at the Battle of Almenar in 1082, the condition of his release was that his

nephew, also Ramon, married El Cid’s daughter Maria, in this way Rodrigo Díaz secured a

marriage alliance with the Christian Count of Barcelona, whose lands bordered those of

Valencia to the south.

Thus, in 1092, using his control of much of southern Catalonia around Tortosa, southern

Aragon around Lérida and the countryside around Valencia as his base, El Cid assembled

a combined army of Christian and Moorish troops with the intention of finally seizing Valencia,

with this in mind, he rebuilt the castle of Pena Cadiella in the mountains of Benicadell,

where he established his base of operations, he also succeeded at this time in negotiating

an alliance with his old allies in the taifa of Zaragoza.

It is unclear why El Cid suddenly decided at this time to fully conquer Valencia, a

city which for years he had been content to accept large payments from the rulers of,

in return for him not attacking, though it seems likely that this new policy of conquest

may have been due to the growing power of the Almoravids to the south, vassal states

like the city of Valencia would no longer do, in the face of the newly aggressive invader.

By the autumn he had secured most of the surrounding area and finally began closing in on Valencia,

as a first step he laid siege to the castle of Cebolla next to the town in November 1092,

then, following its capture in 1093, Rodrigo finally laid siege to Valencia itself in July

of 1093.

The siege would last nearly an entire year with siege-works on the beachhead to try to

break down the considerable defences of medieval Valencia, an attempt by the Almoravids to

relieve the siege in December 1093 failed miserably, one of the first conclusive defeats

the invaders from North Africa suffered against a Christian army, as a consequence on the

15th of June 1094, the chief magistrate of Valencia, Ibn Jahhaf, surrendered the city,

and El Cid rode into Valencia as its conqueror.

In the aftermath of the siege, El Cid now ruled a considerable Christian principality

encompassing Valencia and much of the surrounding countryside and coastline, nominally he claimed

to rule in Alfonso VI’s name, but this was effectively an independent kingdom, and his

banishment from Castile five years earlier, made a mockery of the idea that he was still

the king’s subject.

Its governance under El Cid reflected his career as someone who had operated in the

world of Christian Spain and Muslim Al-Andalus, he did restore Christianity in the city, for

instance, Ibn Jahhaf, the former magistrate was burned alive shortly after El Cid occupied

the city, and the central city mosque was converted into a Christian church.

Additionally Christian colonists were brought in to Valencia to reduce the dominance of

the city by Muslims, however, freedom of worship for both confessions was maintained and both

Christians and Muslims served in his government, while Valencia’s considerable Jewish population

was also afforded a greater degree of toleration than was typical of almost anywhere else in

Late Medieval Europe.

Yet while the conquest of Valencia was a remarkable achievement for a man who had started out

as a mid-ranking noble at the Castilian court, El Cid’s territories were far from secure

with the acquisition of the city in 1094, the Almoravids had concentrated their attacks

on central Spain from the early 1090s onwards and the reconquest of Toledo was their primary

objective, but their secondary aim was further expansion along the Mediterranean coast and

the absorption of the remaining taifas there, north towards Lérida and Zaragoza, the northernmost

states of Muslim control.

El Cid’s capture of Valencia had now profoundly compromised this and in October 1094, just

months after El Cid’s entry into the city, a detachment of Berbers was sent north under

general Abu Abdalá, the resulting battle at Quart de Poblet, a few kilometres from

Valencia, was a further victory for El Cid.

In the years that followed further military success followed, in 1095 Rodrigo captured

the Muslim-held castle of Serra, a highly positioned fortification north of Valencia

with very great defensive capabilities, then in 1097, in alliance with Peter I of Aragon,

El Cid defeated another significant army of Almoravids, sent north under the command of

Mohammad ben Tashufin at the Battle of Bairén, approximately forty kilometres south of Valencia,

and the following year, he finally succeeded in capturing the stronghold of Murviedro,

a prize El Campeador had long sought after.

Much of El Cid’s reputation originates from these latter actions against the Almoravids

and their allies in eastern Spain, just as much as his earlier military accomplishments

and seizure of Valencia.

Between their first arrival in Al-Andalus in 1086 and the mid-1090s, the Almoravids

had successively won victory after victory against the Christian forces of Castile and

the other Spanish kingdoms, only El Cid could seem to defeat them, as he did when successive

Almoravid expeditions were sent northeast from southern Spain against him, as occurred

in 1093, 1094 and 1097, all with victory as the end result for Rodrigo and his followers.

Murviedro was to be his last conquest, he died at Valencia in the summer of 1099, seemingly

of natural causes, an entirely plausible scenario, being by then, into his fifties and entering

old age by the standard of the times, thus, the great El Cid, El Campeador, died a relatively

peaceful death in the city he had allegedly conquered for the Christian cause, but which

in reality he had taken from anyone who would block his ambition, Christian and Muslim alike.

Within months of his death Rodrigo’s life’s work was being reversed, further Almoravid

attacks were quickly undertaken against Valencia and in 1102 the Cid’s wife, Jimena, was

forced to abandon the city and return to Castile, by 1110 most of the territories in eastern

Spain which El Campeador had brought back into the Christian fold, were re-occupied

by the Moors.

Consequently El Cid’s most significant success in his lifetime, the conquest of Valencia

and its reclamation from its Muslim occupants was quite an ephemeral success and it reverted

back into Moorish control for over 130 years until the king of Aragon, James I, reconquered

it definitively for the Christian cause in 1238.

The wider Reconquista would continue as an intense conflict during the twelfth century

between the Christian states of northern Spain and the Almoravids, followed by their successor,

the Almohad Caliphate which again emerged as a more aggressive successor state of North

Africa in the 1140s.

Eventually the tide was turned in the thirteenth century, as an increasingly more militarily

powerful Christian north, backed by technological advances which a declining Arab world could

not match, inexorably rolled back the Muslim presence in the south of Spain, until finally

in 1492 the Christian Monarchs of Castile and Aragon, Isabella I of Aragon and Ferdinand

II of Castile, succeeded in conquering the final Moorish settlements in Granada in the

south of the country.

In the years that followed his death a striking mythology was created around the life of Rodrigo

Díaz, his body was disinterred from its grave in Valencia by his wife Jimena in 1101, shortly

before the fall of the city to the Almoravid advance, and she took it northwest back to

Burgos near El Cid’s hometown of Vivar, here the body was reburied at the monastery

of San Pedro de Cardena near Burgos before being reinterred again later and placed in

a tomb at Burgos Cathedral where it lies today.

Approximately fifty years after El Cid’s death work commenced by some unknown author,

or multiple authors, on El Poema de mio Cid, or The Song of my Cid, this was a lengthy

epic poem telling the story of El Cid’s life and exploits, it has come to be regarded

as a national epic of Spain and was responsible to a considerable degree, for the immortalisation

of El Cid as a Spanish national hero.

The story of El Cid has subsequently been picked up and embellished, particularly at

the height of the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and even by Hollywood

in the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, as a result, the myth of El Cid as the chivalric

hero of the Spanish Reconquista who pushed back the Muslim occupants of the country has

become engrained in the popular imagining of Medieval Spain.

But the reality is more complex, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar was a strange and fascinating character,

there is no doubting his military prowess, he appears to have never lost a major military

engagement, for a man who spent his entire adult life engaged in warfare, commanding

in some of the most significant conflicts fought in eleventh-century Spain, this alone

was a remarkable fact.

Moreover it was not just the sheer scale of his victories but the consequence of them,

the battles he commanded at during the 1070s, 1080s and 1090s were some of the most significant

fought in early medieval Spain, furthermore his conquest of Valencia was a singular achievement,

while perhaps his most significant military accomplishment, was in repulsing numerous

Almoravid advances towards Valencia in the mid-1090s, at a time when the armies of Christian

Spain elsewhere in Iberia, were being soundly defeated by these invaders from North Africa.

But his political career and allegiances were far more multi-dimensional than the myth of

El Cid allows for, between the 1070s and his death in 1099 he frequently switched sides

in the tangled politics of eleventh-century Spain, beginning his career as a senior military

commander under the kings of Castile, then putting his martial abilities to work for

the Muslim kingdoms to the east and finally forging his own path as the conqueror and

ruler of Valencia at the end of his life, thus, he lived a life on the borders of the

Spanish kingdoms, intricately navigating the torturous politics of the Christian and Muslim

kingdoms, at once ‘El Cid’ and ‘El Campeador’.

What do you think of El Cid?

Was he a hero of the Spanish Reconquista or a self-interested opportunist who sided with

whichever side he could benefit most from, in the tortured politics of eleventh-century

Spain?

Please let us know in the comment section, and in the meantime, thank you very much

for watching.