Aliran-Aliran Filsafat Barat Modern: Rasionalisme, Empirisme, Kritisisme, dan Positivisme

Summary

The video script discusses the major currents within modern Western philosophy, focusing on four primary schools of thought: rationalism, empiricism, criticism, and positivism. Rationalism, represented by philosophers like René Descartes, posits that knowledge is derived from reason alone. Empiricism, with figures such as John Locke, argues that knowledge stems from experience and sensory input. Criticism, popularized by Immanuel Kant, synthesizes rationalism and empiricism, suggesting that knowledge is a combination of empirical data and a priori concepts. Lastly, positivism, championed by Auguste Comte, emphasizes that scientific knowledge should be based solely on observable facts. The lecture also touches on the development of knowledge from theological to metaphysical to positive stages, reflecting the maturation of human understanding. The summary provides an insightful glimpse into the foundational ideas that shape Western philosophical traditions, inviting viewers to explore these influential movements further.

Takeaways

• 📚 The introduction to Western philosophy was discussed, focusing on the major traditions within modern Western philosophy.
• 🌐 Four major streams were identified as shaping modern Western philosophy: Rationalism, Empiricism, Criticism, and Positivism.
• 💡 Rationalism posits that knowledge is obtained solely through reason, not from material reality external to the mind.
• 🌟 Key figures of Rationalism include René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal.
• 🧠 Empiricism asserts that valid knowledge comes from experience, in contrast to Rationalism which emphasizes innate ideas.
• 🔍 John Locke, a prominent Empiricist, argued against the notion of innate ideas, proposing instead that the mind is a 'tabula rasa' or blank slate.
• 🤔 Criticism, popularized by Immanuel Kant, synthesizes Empiricism and Rationalism, emphasizing the role of both empirical data and a priori categories in knowledge formation.
• 📈 Positivism, championed by Auguste Comte, asserts that scientific knowledge is based only on factual data and observations, moving away from metaphysical and theological explanations.
• 🌟 The progression of human knowledge, according to Auguste Comte, goes through theological, metaphysical, and positive stages.
• 🌍 Positivism has influenced the modern understanding of scientific knowledge, emphasizing objectivity and the use of empirical facts.
• 📖 The lecture was delivered by Muhammad Arif, a lecturer in Dakwah and Philosophy at Islam UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta.

Q & A

What are the four major streams of thought that have influenced modern Western philosophy?

The four major streams of thought in modern Western philosophy are rationalism, empiricism, criticism, and positivism.

According to rationalism, what is the source of knowledge?

Rationalism posits that knowledge is obtained solely through reason, not from material reality external to the mind.

Who is considered the father of modern philosophy and how did he view the relationship between consciousness and reality?

René Descartes is considered the father of modern philosophy. He believed that our consciousness, or awareness, delineates reality outside of consciousness itself, implying that by being aware of our consciousness, we can understand the reality outside of ourselves.

What is the fundamental difference between rationalism and empiricism in terms of the source of knowledge?

While rationalism asserts that the source of knowledge is reason or the mind, empiricism argues that knowledge comes from experience and is based on empirical data.

How does John Locke's concept of 'tabula rasa' challenge the rationalist belief in innate ideas?

John Locke's concept of 'tabula rasa' suggests that the mind is a blank slate at birth, void of any pre-existing ideas, challenging the rationalist belief in innate ideas that are present from birth.

What is the core idea of critical philosophy as introduced by Immanuel Kant?

Critical philosophy, as introduced by Immanuel Kant, is a synthesis between empiricism and rationalism. It posits that knowledge is formed through a combination of empirical data and a priori concepts or categories of the mind.

How does Immanuel Kant's concept of the 'categories of the understanding' contribute to the formation of knowledge?

According to Immanuel Kant, the categories of the understanding are a priori concepts that structure and organize empirical data, allowing us to make sense of our experiences and form knowledge.

What is positivism and how does it differ from the other philosophical streams mentioned?

Positivism is the view that scientific knowledge must be based on empirical facts alone. It differs from the other streams by rejecting a priori concepts or innate ideas as a source of knowledge, emphasizing that all knowledge must be derived from observation and empirical data.

Who is Auguste Comte and what is his contribution to the philosophy of positivism?

Auguste Comte is a principal figure in positivism. He introduced the idea of the development of scientific knowledge through stages, from theological to metaphysical to the final stage of positive knowledge, which is based on empirical facts and observation.

How does the concept of 'objectivity' relate to positivism?

In positivism, knowledge is considered to be objective, meaning it is based on empirical facts that are observable and verifiable, independent of personal feelings or opinions.

What is the significance of understanding these philosophical streams in the context of modern thought?

Understanding these philosophical streams is significant as they have shaped the way we approach knowledge, science, and reality. They provide a foundation for critical thinking and underpin many aspects of modern scientific methodology and the philosophy of science.

How does the script's discussion on Western philosophy relate to the broader study of epistemology, which is the theory of knowledge?

The script's discussion on Western philosophy directly relates to epistemology as it explores different theories of how knowledge is acquired, processed, and understood, which are central concerns of epistemology.

Outlines

00:00

🎓 Introduction to Western Philosophy Streams

The speaker, Muhammad Arif, a lecturer in Islamic studies and philosophy at UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, introduces the topic of Western philosophy. He outlines four major streams that have influenced modern Western philosophy: rationalism, empiricism, criticism, and positivism. Arif mentions additional philosophies like existentialism, materialism, and idealism but focuses on the four primary ones. Rationalism is described as the belief that knowledge is gained through reason alone, not through material facts. Key figures in rationalism include René Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, and Blaise Pascal. Empiricism, contrastingly, posits that knowledge comes from experience, not pure reason.

05:04

🧠 Empiricism and the Role of Experience

John Locke, a prominent empiricist, is highlighted for his assertion that the mind is a 'tabula rasa' or blank slate at birth, void of innate ideas as rationalists propose. Empiricists argue that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Locke criticizes the rationalist view of innate ideas as unproven assumptions. Empiricism is characterized by a posteriori knowledge, which is based on experience, as opposed to a priori knowledge that is independent of experience. Other empiricists mentioned include Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, and David Hume, all of whom are identified as English philosophers.

10:06

🤔 Criticism: The Synthesis of Empiricism and Rationalism

Criticism, or critical philosophy, is presented as a synthesis of empiricism and rationalism. Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, is credited with developing this stream. Kant argued that knowledge is formed through a synthesis of empirical data and a priori elements of reason. He introduced the concept of the mind's a priori categories, of which there are 12, that shape our understanding of the empirical data we receive through our senses. This process is likened to wearing colored glasses that filter and interpret the data we perceive. Criticism aims to reconcile the opposing views of rationalism and empiricism, suggesting that both empirical data and a priori categories are essential for knowledge.

15:08

📚 Positivism and the Factual Basis of Scientific Knowledge

Positivism is described as a philosophy that asserts scientific knowledge must be based solely on factual, observable data. It is a radical departure from Kant's critical philosophy and the empiricist view that knowledge is possible only through empirical data. Auguste Comte, a central figure in positivism, introduced the idea of the development of knowledge through stages, from theological to metaphysical to positive. The theological stage is characterized by attributing natural events to divine causes, the metaphysical stage seeks abstract causes, and the positive stage is based on empirical facts and observation. Positivism emphasizes objectivity and the importance of facts in the pursuit of knowledge, marking a shift towards a more definitive and factual understanding of the world.

📢 Conclusion and Invitation for Questions

The speaker concludes the discussion on the major streams of modern Western philosophy and invites any questions or comments from the audience. He acknowledges the potential for oversight and expresses gratitude for the opportunity to discuss these philosophical ideas. The session ends with a traditional Islamic greeting, emphasizing respect and goodwill towards the audience.

Keywords

💡Rationalism

Rationalism is a philosophical view that emphasizes the role of reason and logic in acquiring knowledge. In the context of the video, it is associated with the belief that knowledge is derived solely from the mind's rational processes and not from external material reality. An example from the script is the mention of René Descartes, who is considered a father of modern philosophy and a prominent rationalist, advocating the idea that 'cogito, ergo sum' (I think, therefore I am), which underscores the primacy of consciousness and thought in understanding reality.

💡Empiricism

Empiricism stands in contrast to rationalism by asserting that knowledge comes from experience and sensory observation rather than pure reason. The video discusses how empiricists, such as John Locke, reject the notion of innate ideas, proposing instead that the mind is a 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) upon which experience writes. Empiricists argue that all knowledge is derived from the impressions made on our senses by empirical data.

💡Criticism

Criticism, as discussed in the video, refers to the synthesis between rationalism and empiricism. Immanuel Kant, a key figure in this movement, argued that knowledge is formed by combining empirical data with a priori concepts. This process involves the mind's categories shaping the raw data received through the senses, leading to a structured understanding of reality. Kant's approach is seen as a bridge between the two previous schools of thought, emphasizing the importance of both empirical evidence and rational concepts in the formation of knowledge.

💡Positivism

Positivism is a philosophy of science that asserts that only factual, observable, and empirical knowledge is scientific. It is represented in the video by Auguste Comte, who introduced the idea that scientific knowledge progresses through stages, from theological to metaphysical to the final stage of positive knowledge. Positivism is characterized by an objective approach to knowledge, relying on empirical facts and rejecting metaphysical speculation. The video mentions that, according to positivism, true scientific knowledge is based on empirical data and observation.

💡A priori

A priori knowledge refers to knowledge that is independent of experience and is derived from reason alone. In the video, it is discussed in the context of Kant's philosophy, where a priori concepts are essential for structuring the empirical data that our senses receive. These concepts are considered innate and provide the framework through which we interpret and understand the world. An example from the script is Kant's assertion that the mind has a set of a priori categories that shape our perception and understanding of reality.

💡A posteriori

A posteriori knowledge is based on experience and observation. It is the opposite of a priori knowledge and aligns with the empiricist belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. The video contrasts a priori knowledge with a posteriori, highlighting that for empiricists, such as John Locke, knowledge is built upon the experiences we gather through our senses, and there are no innate ideas.

💡Subjectivity

Subjectivity pertains to individual perspectives and personal experiences that shape one's understanding of the world. In the video, subjectivity is discussed in the context of contrasting it with objectivity, particularly within the framework of positivism. Positivists argue for objective knowledge based on empirical facts, whereas subjectivity implies a personal or individualized interpretation of these facts.

💡Objectivity

Objectivity is the concept of knowledge that is not influenced by personal feelings or opinions and is based on observable facts. The video discusses how positivism champions objectivity in scientific knowledge, advocating for a strict reliance on empirical data and observation. Objectivity is portrayed as the pinnacle of knowledge, in contrast to subjectivity, which is seen as less reliable due to its dependence on individual perspectives.

💡Innate Ideas

Innate ideas are concepts that are believed to be present in the mind from birth, independent of experience. The video describes how rationalists, such as those in the Cartesian tradition, posit the existence of innate ideas that structure our understanding of the world. Empiricists, on the other hand, dispute this notion, arguing that all ideas are formed through experience, as exemplified by John Locke's theory of the mind as a 'tabula rasa.'

💡Synthetic a priori

Synthetic a priori knowledge is a concept introduced by Immanuel Kant to describe knowledge that is not derived from experience (a priori) but also expands our understanding by combining concepts to create new knowledge (synthetic). In the video, Kant's notion of synthetic a priori judgments is central to his critical philosophy, where he argues that such judgments are necessary for scientific understanding and are grounded in both empirical data and the mind's a priori categories.

💡Transcendentalism

Transcendentalism is a philosophical approach that investigates the nature and conditions of knowledge. While not explicitly mentioned in the transcript, it is closely related to Kant's critical philosophy, which the video discusses. Transcendentalism seeks to understand the fundamental structures and categories of the mind that make experience and knowledge possible. In Kant's work, it involves examining how a priori concepts condition our understanding of empirical data.

Highlights

Introduction to the major currents in modern Western philosophy.

Overview of the four main streams that have shaped modern Western philosophy.

Rationalism emphasized as the philosophy where knowledge stems solely from reasoning.

Empiricism contrasts rationalism, suggesting knowledge comes from sensory experiences.

Critical discussion on the concept of 'innate ideas' as challenged by empiricist John Locke.

Presentation of Criticism, synthesizing rationalist and empiricist views according to Immanuel Kant.

Kant's model of thought as a synthesis of sensory data and a priori mental categories.

Introduction of Positivism, defining scientific knowledge as based strictly on factual data.

Auguste Comte's historical development of knowledge, from theological to positive stage.

Theological stage characterized as childhood in human understanding according to Comte.

Metaphysical stage described as humanity's adolescence, moving from gods to abstract causes.

The positive stage highlighted as the maturity of human knowledge focusing on observable facts.

Discussion on the relevance and impact of each philosophical stream on modern thought.

Explanation of the interplay between subjective consciousness and objective reality in knowledge formation.

Invitation for further questions and reflections on the material presented.

Transcripts

knari assalamualaikum warahmatullah

wabarakatuh bertemu lagi dengan saya

Muhammad Arif dosen akidah dan filsafat

Islam UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta

di video kali ini saya akan membahas

tentang pengantar filsafat barat dalam

hal ini saya akan membahas secara

sekilas

aliran-aliran besar dalam tradisi

filsafat barat modern

Hai ada setidaknya empat aliran besar

yang mewarnai filsafat barat modern

yang pertama

rasionalisme yang kedua empirisme yang

ketiga kritisisme dan yang keempat

adalah

positifisme empat aliran ini akan kita

bahas secara lebih spesifik dalam

slide-slide yang berikutnya Sebenarnya

masih ada banyak lagi beberapa aliran

seperti

eksistensialisme materialisme idealisme

Jerman dan semacamnya tetapi

saya ambil setidaknya empat besar inilah

yang menjadi aliran yang cukup besar

dalam tradisi filsafat barat modern

yang pertama rasionalisme

hai bagi aliran filsafat rasionalisme

mereka berpendapat bahwa pengetahuan itu

diperoleh hanya melalui rasio hanya dari

rasio atau kesadaran kita

bukan berasal dari kenyataan material

diluar dirinya

Jadi bagi kalangan rasionalis ini yang

namanya pengetahuan itu asalnya itu

adalah rasio

bukan benda-benda material yang kita

lihat jadi kenyataan kenyataan material

itu tidak memberikan sumbangan kepada

pengetahuan yang memberikan atau yang

memegang kendali terhadap pengetahuan

manusia itu adalah rasio

Mengapa mereka kemudian memiliki

pemahaman seperti ini kyanya para filsuf

rasionalis itu memiliki pandangan bahwa

sumber pengetahuan itu adalah pikiran

kita karena mereka memiliki jargon

seperti ini kok gitu Ergo Sum aku

berpikir maka aku ada yang dipopulerkan

oleh Bapak filsafat modern yaitu Rene

dekat

dia beranggapan bahwa kesadaran kita ya

kesadaran kita itu melukiskan kenyataan

diluar kesadaran itu sendiri

Hai jadi dengan cara dengan cara kita

menyadari kesadaran kita kita sendiri

maka kita akan mengenali kenyataan di

luar diri kita

objek-objek yang lain itu diluar diri

kita itu terkenal di lewat dengan cara

kita berpikir tentang diri kita artinya

apa bagi mereka

The Subject atau kesadaran

itu dipandang sebagai fondasi

pengetahuan Jadi bagi kalangan

rasionalis itu sumber pengetahuan itu

adalah

akal budi

adapun adapun tokoh-tokoh rasionalisme

itu setidaknya empat orang ini yang

pertama sebagai Bapak filsafat modern

yaitu Rene dekat

terus spinoza leibniz dan Blaise Pascal

empat tokoh inilah empat tokoh besar

aliran rasionalisme filsafat modern

aliran yang berikutnya aliran yang kedua

yaitu empirisme

berbeda dengan rasionalisme yang

mengandaikan bahwa pengetahuan itu

sumbernya adalah

akal-akal budi atau rasio dalam

empirisme sebaliknya mereka cek itu bagi

empirisme pengetahuan yang shahih atau

pengetahuan itu sumbernya itu bukan akal

budi bukan kesadaran tadi itu tetapi

pengalaman

kalau yang tadi itu apriori tidak

berdasarkan pengalaman kalau yang

empirisme ini a posteriori Berdasarkan

pengalaman

Salah satu tokoh empirisme John Locke

mengatakan bahwa ide-ide bawaan yang

dipercaya oleh kalangan rasionalis itu

adalah anggapan yang tidak terbukti

dalam kenyataan kalangan rasionalis itu

percaya bahwa didalam otak manusia

didalam otak manusia itu ada yang

namanya ide-ide bawaan yang sudah sejak

lahir itu ada didalam pikiran manusia

bagi jonlok ini tidak bukti dak terbukti

pengalaman-pengalaman lah yang membuat

kemudian di dalam di kepala kita itu ada

yang namanya akal jadi

eh orang lahir itu menurut John Locke

itu

lahir dalam keadaan kosong atau

tabularasa seperti kertas kosong oleh

kira-kira Nah baru setelah mereka

anak-anak kecil atau kita semua manusia

ini lahir di dunia

berinteraksi di dunia mempengaruhi

pengalaman pengalaman indrawi akan

sesuatu diluar kita barulah disitu

kemudian muncul dalam pemikiran kita itu

pengetahuan-pengetahuan atau kesan-kesan

artinya Apa sumber pengetahuan bukanlah

akal budi bawaan sebagaimana dibayangkan

oleh kalangan rasionalis tadi

tetapi sumber pengetahuan itu adalah

kesan-kesan yang dialami oleh panca

indera kita

akan data-data empiris tadi jadi inilah

kalangan empiris mereka menggugat

rasionalis

ada beberapa tokoh ada beberapa

tokoh-tokoh empiris empirisme yang

pertama ada Thomas hub ada John Locke

ada zat berklee dan ada Devi Um

rata-rata mereka semua ini adalah filsuf

Inggris

Hai cowok

yang berikutnya aliran yang ketiga

adalah kritisisme

kritisisme ini adalah sintesis antara

empirisme yang tadi

melebih mengutamakan pengetahuan manusia

itu berdasarkan data-data indrawi dan

rasionalisme yang mengatakan bahwa

sumber pengetahuan itu adalah akal budi

aliran ini dipopulerkan oleh filsuf

Jerman yaitu Iman welcome to

Hai Menurut Immanuel kant

berfikir itu adalah membuat keputusan

dalam putusan

itu terjadi sintesis antara data-data

indrawi dan unsur-unsur apriori

akal-budi jadi tidak seperti tadi yang

kalangan empiris yang mengatakan sumber

pengetahuan itu hanya data indrawi atau

kalangan rasionalis yang mengatakan

bahwa unsur-unsur apriori akal-budi

itulah sumber ilmu pengetahuan bagi

menurut kalau Menurut Immanuel kant

dua-duanya itu penting sama-sama penting

jadi Menurut Immanuel kant

dua-duanya ini penting akan lebih jelas

kalau kita Mengikuti alur Bagaimana

putusan itu terbentuk

dalam proses berpikir ya proses putusan

tadi

aktivitas pertama yang dilakukan oleh

manusia itu adalah lengkap data-data

empiris dan penangkapan data-data

empiris ini dilakukan oleh pancaindra

berikutnya data-data indrawi yang sudah

kita tangkap itu itu kemudian masuk

kedalam otak kita bertemu dengan

kategori-kategori apriori yang ada di

dalam akal budi kita

disitu kan kemudian menjelaskan ada 12

kategori apriori dalam akal budi manusia

kalau ada setelah 10 Immanuel kant

menambahkan dua lagi sehingga berjumlah

12 kategori di dalam atau data-data

indrawi Adi dalam akal Budinya itu ada

12 kategori dan dalam mengambil

keputusan itu ada sintesis antara

data-data indrawi dan kategori-kategori

akal-budi jadi

data-data indrawi yang sudah kita ambil

itu

kemudian itu cocokkan dengan 12 kategori

yang dalam ada di dalam akal budi kita

Apakah dia berwarna jumlah berkait

dengan jumlah atau kuantitas Collectors

eh kuantitas kualitas atau semacamnya

itulah Rescue kategori katente indrawi

itu kemudian dikategorisasikan

menjadi diputuskan kemudian ini

berjumlah lima komputer ini berjumlah

lima misalkan komputer ini menjadi bagus

dan semacamnya Jadi kalau hanya

data-data empiris ini bukan pengeluh

bukan pengetahuan Tetapi kalau sudah ada

kolaborasi antara

data-data empiris dengan

kategori-kategori akal budi itu barulah

yang namanya pengetahuan ini kalau

dicontohkan Bagaimana ini terjadi ini

bisa dilihat dari

diibaratkan sebagai kacamata

laptop yang berwarna hitam

Pauli kita lihat dengan kacamata kuning

maka dia akan terlihat kuning laptop ini

berwarna kuning ia laptop data-data

indrawi tertangkap dalam pikiran kita

dalam aktivitas pemikiran kita

kategori-kategori itu ibaratnya

kacamata-kacamata ini kalau kemudian

menetapkan sebagai kuning maka dia akan

berwarna kuning jadi ada kolaborasi

antara data-data empiris yang terserap

oleh indera kita dengan akal budi kita

inilah proses berpikir proses

pengetahuan yang Menurut Immanuel kant

dan ini mendamaikan antara rasionalisme

dan empirisme yang di kemudian hari

dikenal sebagai kritisisme

Paimin aliran filsafat modern yang

berikutnya adalah positifisme

dalam pandangan positifisme i

Hai mereka mengatakan bahwa yang ilmiah

hanyalah sesuatu yang faktual saja yang

berdasarkan kepada kenyataan saja

ini

meradikalkan atau menjadikan lebih

definitif lagi

pandangan Immanuel kant dan

filsuf-filsuf empiris tentang bahwa

pengetahuan itu hanya mungkin dengan

menggunakan data-data yang faktual

data-data indrawi

salah satu tokohnya atau tokoh utamanya

yaitu August Comte De

Hai secara lebih spesifik Agus come itu

memperkenalkan sejarah perkembangan ilmu

pengetahuan

ia mengatakan bahwa pada mulanya manusia

itu

melalui tahap pengetahuan secara

teologis manusia mencari sebab terakhir

di belakang peristiwa alam yang

ditemukannya lalu dia menemukan bahwa

peristiwa alam itu terjadi karena Tuhan

atau sebab terakhirnya sebab dari

perubahan alam itu peristiwa alam itu

adalah Tuhan atau dewa-dewa pendekatan

seperti ini menurut Agus committed to

adalah pendekatan teologis

model pengetahuan teologis dan ini

menurut bagus com karena dia

mengembangkan tiga tahap ini sebagai

tahap-tahap pertumbuhan maka teologis

ini adalah tahap anak-anak katanya

guscom

berikutnya yaitu metafisis

kalau teologis mencari sebab terakhir

dan sebab terakhirnya itu bermuara

kepada Tuhan dan dewa-dewa kalau dalam

tradisi pengetahuan metafisis sebab

terakhir itu ditemukan di dalam

abstraksi abstraksi metafisis ada yang

disebut causa Prima

header dan seterusnya

dan ini dalam proses ini akan terjadi

proses rasional ada proses rasional

dalam hal ini dan ini perkembangan

manusia menurut

Agus Khomeini adalah tahap remaja kalau

tadi tahap anak-anak metafisis kalau

teologis anak-anak metafisis itu tahap

remaja

terakhir menurut Auguste Comte itu

kemudian masuk di era yang namanya

pengetahuan yang bersifat positif

Hai di sini

sebab peristiwa itu peristiwa ada alam

gitu itu tidak lagi didasarkan kepada

abstraksi abstraksi metafisis atau

peristiwa up atau dalam Tuhan dan

dewa-dewa tetapi berdasarkan data-data

indrawi atau fakta dan ini diperoleh

lewat observasi

jadi sini kemudian ini adalah Tahap

terakhir dari perkembangan manusia yang

disebut sebagai tahap dewasa Jadi kalau

manusia ingin dianggap sebagai manusia

dewasa itu harus berpengetahuan yang

positif menurut Agus com kalau teologis

itu masih anak-anak metafisis itu remaja

kalau positif itu adalah

pengetahuan puncak dari manusia itu

mestinya adalah positif pengetahuan yang

didapat dari proses observasi D sinilah

kemudian dan ini mungkin membayangi

pengetahuan kita sampai sekarang untuk

menyatakan bahwa yang ilmiah itu adalah

dayang

fakta-fakta indrawi

ini positifisme dan disini kemudian

muncul

anggapan yang menjadi ciri khas modern

yaitu objectivity subjektivisme jadi

pengetahuan itu dianggap sebagai

pengetahuan yang objektif

demikian penjelasan saya tentang

aliran-aliran besar di dalam filsafat

barat modern

kurang lebihnya mohon maaf apabila ada

pertanyaan disilahkan Apabila ada

kekurangan bisa ditambal demikian dari

saya terima kasih assalamualaikum

warahmatullah wabarakatuh