The Roman Empire. Or Republic. Or...Which Was It?: Crash Course World History #10

Summary

In this informative and engaging Crash Course World History episode, John Green explores the rise and fall of the Roman Republic through the lens of Julius Caesar's life and political career. The video delves into the intricacies of Roman political structure, the balance of power, and the roles of key figures like Caesar, Crassus, Pompey, and eventually Augustus. It challenges the notion that Caesar alone was responsible for the Republic's demise, suggesting that the seeds of empire were sown long before his time, and that the concentration of power in the hands of generals and the empire's military expansion played a crucial role in its transformation into an imperial system.

Takeaways

• 🏛️ The Roman Empire is often associated with the myth of Romulus and Remus, and the famous acronym SPQR represents Senātus Populusque Rōmānus, a motto of the Roman Republic.
• 👥 The Roman Republic had a complex system of government that combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, with the Senate at its heart, drawn from the aristocratic Patrician class.
• 🤝 The Consuls, two chief executives chosen annually from the Senate, had a one-year term and were meant to check each other's power, with a 10-year gap before serving again.
• 🦅 Julius Caesar, born into a leading Roman family, rose to power through the army and the Senate, eventually becoming consul with the financial help of Crassus.
• 🤝️ The first triumvirate, consisting of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, was a political alliance that greatly benefited Caesar's rise to power.
• 🏛️ Caesar's time as consul led to him gaining the governorship of Gaul, where he successfully conquered the region and amassed a loyal army.
• 🗡️ Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon and subsequent civil war led to his total command over Rome, with him being named both dictator and consul.
• 📅 Caesar implemented significant reforms, including land pensions for soldiers, debt restructuring, and a calendar reform, which were popular with the Roman people.
• 🔪 The assassination of Caesar by the Senate did not restore the Republic, as many senators had hoped, but instead led to further power consolidation and the rise of Augustus.
• 🏟️ The concept of Rome as an empire was established long before Augustus, with military expansion and control over diverse peoples, such as through the Punic Wars.
• 👑 The concentration of power in the hands of generals, necessitated by Rome's military expansion, ultimately led to the creation of emperors, not by any single individual like Caesar.

Q & A

What does SPQR stand for and what is its significance?

SPQR stands for Senātus Populusque Rōmānus, which is one of the mottos of the Roman Republic. It represents the government of the Senate and the People of Rome, highlighting the balance between different forms of power within the Roman political system.

What were the three types of government that the Greek historian Polybius claimed were united in Rome?

According to Polybius, the three types of government found in Rome were monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. This blend was part of what made the Roman Republic's system unique and enduring.

How did the Roman Republic maintain a balance of power within its government?

The Roman Republic maintained a balance of power through a combination of the Senate, which was a legislative body and advisory council made up of elite Patrician families, and the Consuls, who were the chief executives of Rome. There were two Consuls elected each year to check each other's ambitions, and they could only serve for one year and not be re-elected for at least ten years.

What was the role of the dictator in the Roman Republic?

The dictator was a position in the Roman Republic intended for times when the Republic was in imminent danger. The dictator had absolute power to take necessary actions to restore order and stability, but this role was temporary and was meant to be relinquished once the crisis was over.

Who was Julius Caesar and how did he rise to power?

Gaius Julius Caesar was a member of one of Rome's leading families, born around 100 BCE. He served in the army and the Senate, and after a successful military career and a term as governor of Spain, he decided to run for consul. With financial help from Crassus, Caesar became consul in 59 BCE and later gained significant power through his conquests in Gaul and other territories.

What was the first triumvirate and how did it influence Roman politics?

The first triumvirate was an informal alliance between Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, who were three of the most powerful men in Rome. This alliance allowed Caesar to become consul and later the governor of Gaul, significantly increasing his power and influence, but it also set the stage for future conflicts and the eventual fall of the Roman Republic.

What event marked the beginning of the end for Julius Caesar's rule?

The beginning of the end for Caesar's rule was marked by his crossing of the Rubicon River with the 13th Legion, which signified an invasion of his own homeland. This act led to a civil war, and by 48 BCE, Caesar was in total command of Rome's holdings.

What reforms did Caesar implement after consolidating power in Rome?

After consolidating power, Caesar implemented several reforms, including providing land pensions for his soldiers, restructuring the debts of a large percentage of Rome's debtors, and changing the calendar to a format similar to the one we use today.

How did the Roman Senate attempt to restore the Republic after Caesar's assassination?

The Roman Senate attempted to restore the Republic by assassinating Caesar, hoping that his death would bring back the old system of government. However, this was misguided as Caesar's reforms were popular with the people, and his adopted son Octavian, along with Mark Antony and Lepidus, formed a second triumvirate.

What historical figures preceded Julius Caesar in consolidating power and undermining the Roman Republic?

Before Caesar, figures like General Marius and General Sulla had also consolidated power and undermined the Republic. Marius gained popularity and power by opening up the army to the poor and promising them land, while Sulla marched against Rome itself, became its dictator, and executed thousands of people.

How does the script suggest that the Roman Empire began before it had an emperor?

The script suggests that the Roman Empire began before it had an emperor through the examination of Rome's expansion and incorporation of diverse peoples, starting from the Punic Wars. The continuous military expansion and the governance over a diverse range of subject peoples are indicative of an empire, even before Augustus officially became the first emperor.

What was the role of military expansion in the development of the Roman Empire?

Military expansion played a crucial role in the development of the Roman Empire as it allowed Rome to conquer new lands, which were then used to reward retired legionnaires with land. This need for new land to distribute contributed to the rise of powerful generals, who often had the loyalty of their armies, leading to the eventual concentration of power and the formation of the Empire.

Outlines

00:00

🏛️ Introduction to Roman Empire and Julius Caesar

The video begins with an introduction to the Roman Empire, humorously mentioning the myth of Romulus and Remus. It then focuses on the Roman Republic's motto, SPQR, which stands for Senātus Populusque Rōmānus. The main topic of discussion is Julius Caesar and the question of when, if ever, it is acceptable to use violence against a leader. The video outlines the structure of the Roman Republic, highlighting the roles of the Senate, Consuls, and the checks and balances in place to prevent the abuse of power. It also introduces the concept of the Roman dictator and compares it to the two-term presidency established by George Washington, influenced by Cincinnatus.

05:01

🥄 Caesar's Rise to Power and Influence

This paragraph delves into the life and political career of Julius Caesar. Born into a prominent Roman family, Caesar's early military and political successes led him to pursue the consulship with the financial backing of Crassus. After becoming consul, Caesar further solidified his power by forming the first triumvirate with Crassus and Pompey. His military conquests in Gaul significantly boosted his reputation and authority. However, the death of Crassus and the subsequent rivalry with Pompey led to a civil war, with Caesar eventually crossing the Rubicon and seizing control of Rome as both dictator and consul.

10:04

🏰 Caesar's Reforms and Assassination

Once in power, Caesar implemented several reforms that increased his popularity among the Roman populace, such as providing land pensions for soldiers and restructuring debts. He also reformed the calendar, creating a more accurate system that resembles our modern calendar. Despite his reforms, many senators feared Caesar's growing power and conspired to assassinate him. The infamous assassination occurred in the Roman Senate, where Caesar was stabbed 23 times. Contrary to popular belief, Caesar did not utter 'Et Tu, Brute?' upon discovering Brutus among his assassins, a phrase attributed to Shakespeare's creative license.

🌍 Expansion of Rome and the Transition to Empire

The final paragraph discusses the concept of empire before the official designation of Rome as such, highlighting the military expansion and incorporation of diverse peoples that began with the Punic Wars. It argues that Rome became an empire long before Augustus declared himself the first emperor. The concentration of power in the hands of generals, necessitated by Rome's military expansion to provide land for its soldiers, led to the rise of powerful individuals like Marius and Sulla, who preceded Caesar. The paragraph concludes by suggesting that the Roman Empire was born out of the need for military expansion and the loyalty of diverse peoples to individual generals rather than the abstract concept of the Republic.

Keywords

💡Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was a historical empire that lasted from 27 BC to 476 AD, characterized by its vast territorial extent and significant cultural, political, and military influence. In the video, the Roman Empire is discussed as a continuation of the Roman Republic, with Julius Caesar's rise to power and subsequent assassination marking a transition towards a more autocratic form of governance.

💡SPQR

SPQR stands for 'Senātus Populusque Rōmānus,' which translates to 'The Senate and People of Rome.' It is a motto of the Roman Republic and represents the idea that the power of Rome was derived from the collective authority of its Senate and the people.

💡Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. Known for his military conquests, political acumen, and eventual assassination, Caesar's life and actions are central to the discussion of the rise of the empire.

💡Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was the period in ancient Roman history from 509 BC to 27 BC, characterized by a republican form of government with a balance of power among the Senate, the consuls, and the assemblies of citizens. The Republic is noted for its military conquests, expansion, and the development of Roman law and culture.

💡Balance of Power

Balance of power refers to a distribution of power or influence among separate entities within a political system, designed to prevent any single entity from gaining too much control. In the context of the Roman Republic, this concept was crucial in maintaining a system where no single individual or group held absolute power.

💡Triumvirate

A triumvirate is a political regime or alliance formed by three powerful individuals who share power equally. In ancient Rome, the first triumvirate consisted of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, and played a significant role in the political events leading up to the fall of the Roman Republic.

💡Caesar's Assassination

Caesar's assassination refers to the murder of Julius Caesar by a group of Roman senators in 44 BC on the Senate floor. This event is often seen as a pivotal moment in Roman history, marking the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.

💡Augustus

Augustus, originally known as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor who established the principate, the form of government under which the Roman Empire was ruled for the next three centuries. He is known for consolidating power, ending the civil wars, and initiating a period of relative peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana.

💡Punic Wars

The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, two ancient powers, from 264 BC to 146 BC. These wars were significant for their impact on the Mediterranean region and for the eventual dominance of Rome, which expanded its territories and established the foundations of the Roman Empire.

💡Empire

An empire is a large, multi-ethnic, and often autocratic group of states or territories under the sovereignty of a single ruler or the same ruling dynasty. In the context of the video, the term 'empire' is used to describe the Roman state after its extensive territorial expansion and the centralization of power.

💡Great Man History

Great Man History is a historical perspective that attributes significant events and changes in history primarily to the actions and decisions of influential individuals, or 'great men.' This view often downplays the role of social, economic, and other structural factors in shaping historical outcomes.

Highlights

The Roman Empire is often associated with the legendary founding by the nonfictional twins, Romulus and Remus.

SPQR stands for Senātus Populusque Rōmānus, a motto of the Roman Republic.

Julius Caesar's assassination is examined through the question of when, if ever, it is acceptable to stab someone 23 times.

The Roman Republic was known for its balance of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy according to the Greek historian Polybius.

The Senate was a key part of the Roman Republic, a mix of legislature and advisory council, drawn from elite Patrician families.

The Consuls were the chief executives of Rome, elected annually, with a one-year term and a 10-year gap before re-election.

Caesar's rise to power involved an alliance with Crassus and Pompey, forming the first triumvirate.

Caesar's military successes in Gaul and Britain increased his power and influence.

Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon River marked the point of no return, leading to his invasion of Rome and eventual dictatorship.

The assassination of Caesar was based on the belief that he was destroying the Roman Republic.

The idea of a two-term president in the United States was influenced by the Roman ruler Cincinnatus.

Caesar's reforms, such as land pensions for soldiers and restructuring debts, were popular with the Roman people.

The Roman calendar was reformed by Caesar, leading to a system more similar to the modern calendar.

The belief that Caesar's death would restore the Republic was misguided, as his reforms and the rise of the second triumvirate showed.

The concept of Rome as an empire began long before the rule of Augustus, with military expansion and diverse subject peoples.

The concentration of power in the hands of generals, rather than the Senate or other political bodies, signaled the shift towards empire.

The Roman Empire's need for new land for retired legionnaires contributed to the rise of powerful generals and the eventual shift to imperial rule.

The idea of Rome as a Republic was undermined by the empire's structure and the loyalty of diverse peoples to individual generals.

Transcripts

Hi, I’m John Green; this is Crash Course World History and today we’re going to learn

about the Roman Empire, which of course began when two totally nonfictional twins, Romulus

and Remus, who’d been raised by wolves, founded a city on seven hills.

Mr Green, Mr Green, what… what does SPQR stand for?

It means shut pie hole quickly, rapscallion. No, it means Senātus Populusque Rōmānus,

one of the mottos of the Roman Republic.

So today we’re going to do some old school Great Man History and focus on Julius Caesar

while trying to answer a question: When, if ever, is it OK to stab someone 23 times?

[Theme Music]

Shakespeare answers that question by saying that Roman senators killed Caesar because

he was going to destroy the Roman republic, but even if that’s true, we still have to answer whether:

a. The Roman Republic was worth preserving, and

b. whether Caesar actually destroyed it.

One of the things that made the Roman republic endure, both in reality and in imagination

was its balance. According to the Greek historian Polybius, "THE THREE kinds of government,

monarchy, aristocracy and democracy, were all found united in Rome. And… it was no easy

thing to determine with assurance, whether the entire state was an aristocracy, a democracy, or a monarchy.”

At the heart of this blended system was the Senate, a body of legislators chosen from

a group of elite families. (Rome was divided into two broad classes: the Patricians – the

small group of aristocratic families and the Plebeians, basically everybody else. The Senators

were drawn from the Patricians.) The Senate was a sort of a mixture of legislature and

giant advisory council. Their main job was to set the policy for the Consuls.

Each year the Senate would choose from among its ranks 2 co-Consuls to serve as sort of

the chief executives of Rome. There needed to be two so they could check each other’s

ambition, and also so that one could, you know, take care of Rome domestically, while

the other was off fighting wars, and conquering new territory.

There were two additional checks on power: First, the one-year term. I mean, how much

trouble could you really do in a year, right? Unless you’re the CEO of Netflix, I mean

he destroyed that company in like two weeks.

And secondly, once a senator had served as consul, he was forbidden to serve as consul

again for at least 10 years. Although that went a little bit like you say you’re only

going to eat one Chipotle burrito per week, and then there are a few exceptions, and then

all of a sudden you’re there every day, and YES, I know guacamole is more, JUST GIVE IT TO ME!

But right, we were talking about the Romans. The Romans also had a position of dictator,

a person who would who’d take over in the event the Republic was in imminent danger.

The paradigm for this selfless Roman ruler was Cincinnatus, a general who came out of

comfortable retirement at his plantation, took command of an army, defeated whatever

enemy he was battling, and then laid down his command and returned to his farm, safe

in the knowledge that one day the second largest city in Ohio would be named for him.

If that model of leadership sounds familiar to Americans by the way, it’s because George

Washington was heavily influenced by Cincinnatus when he invented the idea of a two term president.

So along comes Caesar. Gaius Ju- Gay-us? No it’s Gaius, I know from Battlestar Galactica.

Gaius Julius Caesar was born around 100 BCE to one of Rome’s leading families. His birth

was somewhat miraculous, requiring a surgical procedure that we know as Caesarian section.

Coming as he did from the senatorial class, it was natural that Caesar would serve in

both the army and the Senate, which he did. He rose through the ranks, and after some

top-notch generalling, and a gig as the governor of Spain, he decided to run for consul.

In order to win, Caesar needed financial help, which he got from Crassus, one of Rome’s

richest men. Crassus ran a private fire company whose business model was essentially, “Hey,

I notice your house is on fire. Give me some money and I’ll help you out with that.”

Caesar succeeded in becoming consul in 59 BCE and thereafter sought to dominate Roman

politics by allying himself with Crassus and also with Rome’s other most powerful man,

the general Pompey. You’ll no doubt remember Pompey from his fascination with Alexander

the Great. Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar were the so-called first triumvirate, and the alliance

worked out super well, for Caesar. Not so well for the other two. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

After a year as consul that included getting the senate to pass laws largely because of

intimidation by Pompey’s troops, Caesar landed the governorship of Gaul, at least

the southern part of Gaul that Rome controlled. He quickly conquered the rest of Gaul and

his four loyal armies — or legions, as the Romans called them — became his source of

power. Caesar continued his conquests, invading Britain and waging another successful war against the Gauls.

While he was away, Crassus died in battle with the Parthians and Pompey, who had become

Caesar’s rival and enemy, was elected Consul. Pompey and the Senate decided to try to strip

Caesar of his command and recall him to Rome. If he returned to Rome without an army, Caesar

would have been prosecuted for corrupt consuling and also probably exceeding his authority

as governor, so instead he returned with the 13th Legion.

He crossed the Rubicon River, famously saying, “The die is cast” or possibly, “Let

the die be cast.” Sorry, Thought Bubble, sources disagree. Basically, Caesar was invading

his own hometown. Pompey was in charge of Rome’s army but like a boss fled the city,

and by 48 BCE Caesar was in total command of all of Rome’s holdings, having been named

both dictator and consul.

Caesar set out to Egypt to track down Pompey only to learn that he’d already been assassinated

by agents of the Pharaoh Ptolemy. Egypt had its own civil war at the time, between the

Pharaoh and his sister/wife Cleopatra. Ptolemy was trying to curry favor with Caesar by killing

his enemy, but Caesar was mad in that the-only-person-who-gets-to-tease-my-little-brother-is-me kind of way, except with murder instead of

teasing. So Caesar sided with — and skoodilypooped with — Cleopatra. Thank you, Thought Bubble.

Cleopatra went on to become the last Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt and bet on Marc “I am the

Wrong Horse” Antony instead of Emperor “There is a Baby Attached to My Leg” Augustus.

But before all that, Caesar made his way back from Egypt to Rome, stopping off to defeat

a few kings in the east, and was declared dictator again. That position that was later

extended for ten years, and then for life.

He was elected consul in 46 BCE and then again in 45 BCE, this last time without a co-consul.

By 45 BCE Caesar was the undisputed master of Rome and he pursued reforms that strengthened

his own power. He provided land pensions for his soldiers, restructured the debts of a

huge percentage of Rome’s debtors, and also changed the calendar to make it look more

like the one we use today.

But by 44 BCE, many Senators had decided that Caesar controlled too much of the power in

Rome, and so they stabbed him 23 times on the floor of the Roman senate. Caesar was

duly surprised about this and everything, but he never said, “Et Tu, Brute” when

he realized Brutus was one of the co-conspirators. That was an invention of Shakespeare.

The conspirators thought that the death of Caesar would bring about the restoration of

the Republic, and they were wrong. For one thing, Caesar’s reforms were really popular

with the Rome’s people, who were quick to hail his adopted son Octavian, as well as

his second-in-command Mark “I am the Wrong Horse” Antony and a dude named Lepidus,

as a second triumvirate.

This triumvirate was an awesome failure, degenerating into a second civil war. Octavian and Antony

fought it out. Antony, being the wrong horse, lost. Octavian won, changed his name to Caesar

Augustus, became sole ruler of Rome, attached a baby to his leg, adopted the title Emperor,

and started printing coins identifying himself as Divini Filius: The Son of God. More on that next week.

Although Augustus tried to pretend that the forms of the Roman republic were still intact,

the truth was that he made the laws and the Senate had become nothing more than a rubber

stamp. Which reminds me, it’s time for the open letter.

Movie magic! An open letter to the Roman Senate. Oh, but first, let’s see what’s in the

secret compartment. Ah, it’s a harmonica! Stan, do you want me to play some old, Roman

folk songs? Very well. Stan, I just want to thank you for doing such a good job of overdubbing there.

Dear Roman Senate, Whether you were rubber stamping the laws of Emperor Augustus, or

stabbing Caesar on the floor of your sacred hall, you were always doing something! I don’t

want to sound nostalgic for a time when people lived to be 30, a tiny minority of adults

could vote, and the best fashion choice was bed-sheets, but oh my god, at least you did something!

Your senate was chosen from among the Patrician class. Our senate here in the United States

is chosen from among the obstructionist class. But don’t get me wrong, Roman senate, you

were terrible. Best wishes, John Green.

So did Caesar destroy the Republic? Well, he started a series of civil wars, he seized

power for himself, he subverted the ideas of the republic, he changed the constitution,

but he’s only really to blame if he was the first one to do that. And he wasn’t.

Take the general Marius, for instance, who rose to power on the strength of his generalship

and on his willingness to open up the army to the poor, who were loyal to him personally,

and not to Rome, and whom he promised land in exchange for their good service in the

army. This of course required the Romans to keep conquering new land so they could keep

giving it to new legionnaires. Marius also was consul 5 times in a row, 60 years before Caesar.

Or look at the general Sulla who, like Marius, ensured that his armies would be more loyal

to him personally than to Rome, but who marched against Rome itself, and then became its dictator,

executing thousands of people in 81 BCE, 30 years before Caesar entered the scene.

There is another way of looking at this question altogether if we dispense with great man history.

Maybe Rome became an empire before it had an emperor. Like, remember the Persian Empire?

You’ll recall that empire had some characteristics that made it, imperial. Like a unified system

of government, continual military expansion, and a diversity of subject peoples.

The Roman empire had all three of those characteristics long before it became The Roman Empire. Like

Rome started out as a city, and then it became a city state, then a kingdom, and then a Republic,

but that entire time, it was basically comprised of the area around Rome.

By the 4th century BCE, Rome started to incorporate its neighbors like the Latins and the Etruscans,

and pretty soon they had all of Italy under their control, but that’s not really diversity

of subject peoples. I mean, nothing personal, Italians, but you have a lot of things in

common, like the constant gesticulations.

If you want to talk about real expansion and diversity, you’ve got to talk about the

Punic Wars. These were the wars that I remember, primarily because they involved Hannibal crossing the

Alps with freaking war-elephants, which was probably the last time that the elephants could have risen

up, and formed their awesome secret elephant society with elephant planes and elephant cars.

In the First Punic War, Rome wanted Sicily, which was controlled by the Carthaginians.

Rome won, which made Carthage cranky, so they started the second Punic war. In 219 BCE,

Hannibal attacked a Roman town and then led an army across Spain, and then crossed the

freaking Alps with elephants.

Hannibal and his elephant army almost won, but alas, they didn’t, and as a result the

Romans got Spain. People in Spain are definitely NOT Romans (despite Russell Crowe’s character

in Gladiator), which means that by 201 BCE Rome was definitely an empire.

The third Punic War was a formality – Rome found some excuse to attack Carthage and then

destroyed it so completely that these days you can’t even find it on a map. Eventually

this whole area, and a lot more, would be incorporated into a system of provinces and

millions of people would be ruled by the Roman Empire.

And it’s ridiculous to say that Rome was a Republic until Augustus became Rome’s

first official emperor, because by the time he did that, Rome had been an empire for almost

200 years. There's a reason I'm arguing that the death of the Republic came long before

Caesar and probably around the time that Rome became an Empire.

If anything destroyed the idea of Republican Rome, it was the concentration of power into

the hands of one man. And this man was always a general. I mean, you can’t march on Rome

without an army, after all. Why were there such powerful generals? Because Rome had decided

to become an Empire, and empires need to expand militarily. Particularly, the Roman empire

needed to expand militarily because it always needed new land to give its retired legionnaires.

That expansion created the all-powerful general and the incorporation of diverse peoples made

it easier for them to be loyal to him, rather than to some abstract idea of the Republic.

Julius Caesar didn’t create emperors: Empire created them.

Next week we’ll be discussing Christianity, so that shouldn’t be controversial. Until

then, thanks for watching.

Crash Course is produced and directed by Stan Muller, our script supervisor is Danica Johnson.

The show is written by my high school history teacher Raoul Meyer and myself and our graphics

team is Thought Bubble.

Last week's Phrase of the Week was "Pre-Distressed Designer Jeans" If you want to guess at this

week’s Phrase of the Week or suggest future ones, you can do so in Comments where you

can also ask questions about today’s video which our team of historians will endeavor to answer.

Thanks for watching Crash Course, and as we say in my hometown, Don't Forget To Be Awesome.

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