Behaviourist Approach | B.F. Skinner | Operant Conditioning | AQA Psychology

Summary

This video explores operant conditioning through B.F. Skinner's research, focusing on how behavior is shaped by its consequences. It explains reinforcement and punishment, their positive and negative forms, and how they influence behavior. The concept of extinction and reinforcement schedules is discussed, illustrating how these principles are applied in everyday life and, notably, how social media platforms use them to capture our attention.

Takeaways

• 📝 Operant conditioning, explored by B.F. Skinner, is a method of learning through consequences, focusing on how behavior is shaped and maintained by its outcomes.
• 📚 Skinner's work diverged from classical conditioning by emphasizing that behavior is determined by its consequences, not just stimuli and responses.
• 📘 Positive reinforcement involves adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, such as giving praise or rewards.
• 📙 Negative reinforcement involves removing something to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, such as taking away a negative consequence.
• 📛 Positive punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by adding something negative, like a penalty or reprimand.
• 📞 Negative punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated by taking away something positive, like a privilege or reward.
• 📃 The Skinner box was a controlled environment used to study the effects of reinforcement and punishment on animal behavior, particularly in pigeons and rats.
• 📄 Extinction in operant conditioning occurs when a behavior that was previously reinforced no longer receives reinforcement, leading to a decrease in that behavior.
• 📅 Schedules of reinforcement, such as fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval, influence how resistant a behavior is to extinction.
• 📁 Variable ratio reinforcement, where rewards are unpredictable, leads to the highest rate of behavior and is the most resistant to extinction, as seen in applications like social media engagement.
• 📌 Understanding operant conditioning can help individuals recognize how their behavior, and the behavior of others, may be influenced or manipulated through reinforcement.

Q & A

What is operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a method of learning through consequences, where behaviors are increased or decreased in frequency based on positive or negative reinforcement or punishment.

Who is B.F. Skinner and what is his contribution to psychology?

B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who conducted pioneering work in behaviorism, specifically in operant conditioning. He is known for his experiments with animals in a controlled environment called the Skinner box.

What is a Skinner box?

A Skinner box is a controlled experimental apparatus used to study the behavior of animals, particularly rats and pigeons, in response to various stimuli and consequences.

What are the two types of reinforcement?

The two types of reinforcement are positive reinforcement, which adds a stimulus to increase a behavior, and negative reinforcement, which removes a stimulus to increase a behavior.

What are the two types of punishment?

The two types of punishment are positive punishment, which adds a stimulus to decrease a behavior, and negative punishment, which removes a stimulus to decrease a behavior.

How does operant conditioning relate to behavior that is rewarded?

Operant conditioning suggests that behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated because the reward serves as positive reinforcement, strengthening the behavior.

What is meant by 'extinction' in the context of operant conditioning?

Extinction in operant conditioning refers to the process where a behavior that was previously reinforced stops being reinforced, leading to a decrease in the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.

What are the four types of reinforcement schedules?

The four types of reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. These schedules determine how often and predictably a behavior is reinforced.

Why is variable ratio reinforcement considered the most resistant to extinction?

Variable ratio reinforcement is the most resistant to extinction because its unpredictability keeps the subject engaged and continually performing the behavior in anticipation of a reward.

How does the concept of operant conditioning apply to social media platforms like Instagram?

Operant conditioning applies to social media platforms by using variable ratio reinforcement schedules. Users are encouraged to keep checking for likes and comments, similar to a slot machine, which keeps them engaged and coming back.

What is the difference between positive and negative in the context of operant conditioning?

In operant conditioning, 'positive' means to add something (e.g., a reward), while 'negative' means to take something away (e.g., removing a threat). It is not related to the emotional connotations of 'nice' or 'mean'.

Outlines

00:00

🕊️ Operant Conditioning & BF Skinner's Work

The paragraph introduces the concept of operant conditioning, a branch of behaviorism that focuses on how behavior is learned through consequences. It contrasts this with classical conditioning, which was the focus of the previous video. The speaker highlights BF Skinner's contributions to the field, including his experiments with pigeons and rats, and how he used a controlled environment known as the 'Skinner Box' to study reinforcement and punishment. The key terms 'reinforcement' and 'punishment' are defined, with reinforcement being what strengthens behavior and punishment what weakens it. Examples are given to illustrate these concepts, such as a teacher wanting students to hand in homework on time and a parent wanting a child to keep their room tidy.

05:02

📚 Positive & Negative Reinforcement/Punishment

This section delves into the specifics of positive and negative reinforcement and punishment. It clarifies common misconceptions about these terms, explaining that 'positive' means adding something (like a reward) and 'negative' means taking something away (like a privilege). The speaker uses the example of a student named Jimmy who turns in his homework on time, which could be reinforced positively by adding praise or a sticker, or negatively by removing the threat of detention. The concept of punishment is also explored, with examples of how it can be applied to decrease unwanted behaviors.

10:03

🔄 Extinction & Schedules of Reinforcement

The paragraph discusses the concept of extinction in operant conditioning, which occurs when a behavior that was previously reinforced no longer receives reinforcement, leading to a decrease in that behavior. It introduces the idea of schedules of reinforcement, which can affect how resistant a behavior is to extinction. The speaker explains the difference between continuous and partial reinforcement, with partial reinforcement being more resistant to extinction. Four types of partial reinforcement schedules are described: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. The paragraph concludes with an example of how these concepts apply to social media platforms like Instagram, which use variable ratio schedules to keep users engaged.

📱 Applying Operant Conditioning in Daily Life

The final paragraph uses a scenario involving a child named Timmy to illustrate the application of operant conditioning principles. It describes how positive reinforcement (with praise and a promise of an ice cream) can encourage desired behavior, while negative punishment (taking away a trip to the park) can discourage undesired behavior. The speaker also challenges viewers to identify different types of reinforcement schedules in various examples, emphasizing the prevalence of operant conditioning in everyday life and online environments. The paragraph concludes with a call to be aware of how one's behavior is being shaped and manipulated.

Keywords

💡Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. It is central to the video's theme, as it discusses how behaviors are shaped by their consequences. Skinner's work on operant conditioning is highlighted, where he taught pigeons to play ping-pong using this method. The video uses examples such as a rat pressing a lever to receive food pellets, which illustrates positive reinforcement, or receiving an electric shock as punishment.

💡B.F. Skinner

B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who pioneered operant conditioning. The video discusses his work extensively, emphasizing his belief that behavior is shaped by its consequences. Skinner's experiments with pigeons and rats in a 'Skinner Box' are used to demonstrate how reinforcement and punishment can influence behavior.

💡Reinforcement

Reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning refers to any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. The video explains that reinforcement can be positive, by adding a reward, or negative, by removing an unpleasant condition. An example from the script is giving a student praise for handing in homework on time, which is positive reinforcement.

💡Punishment

Punishment is the application of an adverse stimulus or the removal of a positive stimulus to decrease the frequency of a behavior. The video clarifies that punishment can be positive, by adding an unpleasant consequence, or negative, by taking something away. An example given is calling a student's parent as a punishment for not doing homework.

💡Positive Reinforcement

Positive Reinforcement is a type of reinforcement where a pleasant stimulus is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring. In the video, this is exemplified by giving a student a gold star for good behavior, thereby encouraging them to repeat the behavior.

💡Negative Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior. The video uses the example of allowing a student to avoid detention by completing their homework, thus reinforcing the behavior of doing homework.

💡Positive Punishment

Positive Punishment is the addition of an adverse stimulus to decrease the occurrence of a behavior. The video script mentions giving a stern warning to a student as a form of positive punishment to discourage them from repeating a behavior.

💡Negative Punishment

Negative Punishment involves the removal of a positive stimulus to reduce the likelihood of a behavior. An example from the script is taking away a student's break time for not completing their homework, which serves to discourage the behavior.

💡Extinction

Extinction in operant conditioning is the process by which a behavior that was once reinforced stops being reinforced, leading to a decrease in the behavior's occurrence. The video explains that if reinforcement is stopped, such as no longer giving gold stars, the behavior may cease over time.

💡Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement are patterns that determine when and how often a behavior is reinforced. The video outlines different schedules such as fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. These schedules affect how resistant a behavior is to extinction, with variable ratio schedules being particularly resistant.

💡Variable Ratio Schedule

A Variable Ratio Schedule is a type of partial reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced after a varying, unpredictable number of responses. The video explains that this schedule leads to a high rate of behavior and is highly resistant to extinction, using the example of a slot machine where the reward is unpredictable.

Highlights

Exploring operant conditioning and the research of B.F. Skinner.

Behaviorism focuses on learning through consequences.

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Skinner's work involved teaching pigeons to play ping-pong using operant conditioning.

The concept of the Skinner box for studying animal behavior.

Positive reinforcement involves adding a reward to strengthen a behavior.

Negative reinforcement involves removing a negative to strengthen a behavior.

Positive punishment involves adding a penalty to weaken a behavior.

Negative punishment involves removing a reward to weaken a behavior.

Extinction occurs when a reinforced behavior stops being reinforced.

Schedules of reinforcement impact how resistant a behavior is to extinction.

Continuous reinforcement versus partial reinforcement.

Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval schedules.

Variable ratio schedules lead to the most behaviors and are most resistant to extinction.

Instagram uses operant conditioning principles to keep users engaged.

Understanding operant conditioning can help manage online behavior manipulation.

Practical examples of operant conditioning in everyday life.

Transcripts

you know when we decide to spend five

minutes before bed on tick-tock and then

the next time we look up an hour and a

half has gone by and all we've done is

watch videos of dance moves and pranks

why do we do that well one part to the

answer involves the work of pigeons ping

pong and b.f skinner welcome back to

bear it in mind on this channel we

explore the world of psychology so that

we can better understand ourselves and

others in this video we are continuing

to explore behaviorism focusing this

time on operant conditioning and the

research of bf skinner this video is

part of a series looking at the topic

called approaches in psychology each of

these approaches explains human behavior

from a different perspective in the

previous video in the series we

introduced the behaviourist approach and

explored classical conditioning and the

work of ivan pavlov in this video we're

going to explore operant conditioning

and the research of bf skinner at the

end of this video will be some retrieval

practice of what we cover so that you

can check your understanding let's dive

in

you thought ivan pavlov was an

interesting bloke with his prize-winning

research into dog digestion well wait

till you meet b.f skinner skinner's

pioneering work enabled him to teach

pigeons to play ping-pong using the

method of operant conditioning that we

are about to explore in fact he was even

asked by the u.s government to run

project pigeon where he tried to develop

a pigeon controlled guided bomb as part

of the war effort i kid you not

skinner's background wasn't in

psychology but he had read john b

watson's behaviorism and ivan pavlov's

conditioned reflexes which both served

to influence skinner's research in the

1930s for skinner though the stimulus

and response association that we looked

at with ivan pavlov's classical

conditioning was not enough when it came

to understanding human behavior to quote

skinner

behavior is determined by its

consequences

not only that skinner said behavior is

shaped and maintained by its

consequences

so for skinner it's all about

consequences sometimes there are

behaviors that we want people to repeat

like your teacher wants you to hand your

homework in on time the police want you

to drive safely and your parents

probably want you to keep your room tidy

so operant conditioning is learning

through consequences for skinner when we

want to increase the likelihood of a

behavior being repeated we want to

reinforce that behavior more on that in

a minute

but sometimes there are behaviors that

we don't want others to repeat so that

teacher obviously doesn't want you to

repeat the behavior of turning up to

their lesson without your homework the

police don't want you to drive at 40

miles an hour in a 30 mile an hour zone

and your parent doesn't want you to

leave your dirty clothes on the bathroom

floor again

these are all behaviors that your

teacher the police and your parents want

to make sure don't happen again they

want to decrease the likelihood of that

behavior happening again and they tend

to do this by punishing those behaviors

so there we have our first two key terms

reinforcement means doing something that

increases the likelihood of a particular

behavior being repeated so

reinforcements strengthen her behavior

punishments on the other hand decrease

the likelihood of a particular behavior

being repeated so punishments weaken a

behavior

now it's important at this point for me

to mention how skinner investigated all

of this because it become relevant later

on skinner created a highly controlled

setting to carefully study the effects

of reinforcement and punishment on the

behavior of animals particularly on

pigeons and rats this became known as

the skinner box to consider two examples

reinforcement when the rat was placed in

the box it moved around and would

eventually accidentally press the lever

which would release a food pellet the

rat learned the behavior of pushing the

lever rather quickly because of the

reward the positive reinforcement of the

food pellet that followed this reward

strengthened the behavior of pushing the

lever punishment in other experiments if

the rat pressed the lever they would

receive an electric shock

this would decrease the likelihood of

pressing the lever again

we're now going to explore different

types of reinforcement and different

types of punishment when somebody wants

to reinforce a behavior make sure it's

repeated that person has two options

they can use positive reinforcement or

they can use negative reinforcement and

it's exactly the same for punishment if

someone wants to punish a behavior and

make sure it isn't repeated they can use

either positive punishment or negative

punishment

but what is meant by positive and

negative in this context a common

misconception students have is that

positive always means something nice and

negative means something mean something

not so nice but actually when we're

talking about positive and negative we

need to think about it in terms of maths

positive means to add something while

negative means to subtract something to

take something away so let's see how

these two terms play out in the example

of homework the behavior teachers want

to be repeated and i'm speaking from

experience here is for students to hand

their homework in on time

so let's imagine jimmy turns up to his

lesson with his homework

well done jimmy

i might reinforce that behavior by

either adding something some praise a

positive comment on jimmy's work or

maybe even a shiny gold sticker

another way i might reinforce this

behavior is to take away something such

as taking away the threat of a detention

i'll say to him you don't need to stay

behind at lunch because you've done your

homework that's negative reinforcement

so well done jimmy

but unfortunately not all students are

alike jimmy susie turns up to lesson

with no homework this is a behavior i

don't want to see again i want to weaken

that behavior and so i need to apply a

kind of punishment i can either add a

punishment positive punishment such as

giving susie's mum a phone call or

giving susie a stern word in front of

the class or i can apply some negative

punishment by taking something away such

as her precious break or lunch times

so operant conditioning is learning

through consequences operant

conditioning applies to voluntary

responses

now back to a key concept we have

mentioned before in discussing

behaviorism extinction for operant

conditioning extinction is when the

behavior that was reinforced now stops

being reinforced

this makes it less likely that the

behavior will be repeated and may

eventually cease to continue for example

if your teacher suddenly stops giving

you those shiny gold stickers then you

might be tempted to stop putting so much

effort in with your homework and even

stop handing it in on time

linked to the concept of extinction is

what is known as schedules of

reinforcement schedules of reinforcement

can have an impact on how resistant a

behavior is to being extinguished and if

you don't think this is relevant to your

life just wait we know so far that

behavior that is rewarded is more likely

to be repeated however if we are unable

to predict when that reward is likely to

come

what will that do to our behavior this

brings us to a distinction between

continuous reinforcement which is when

behavior is reinforced every time it

occurs and partial reinforcement which

is when behavior is reinforced some of

the time the problem with continuous

reinforcement is that eventually over

time the reinforcement has less of an

impact on the other hand partial

reinforcement is more resistant to

extinction than continuous reinforcement

so if we want someone to keep doing the

behavior for longer partial

reinforcement is the way to go so how

does it work well partial reinforcement

comes in four different types we're

going to consider four schedules of

reinforcement two of these refer to

ratios when you see the word ratio just

think of number the number of responses

two of these refer to interval when you

see the word interval just think of time

you'll also see that two of these refer

to fixed which means that they are

consistent they stay the same you'll

also see that two of these refer to

variable which means they vary they do

not stay the same so firstly a fixed

ratio schedule the reinforcement is

given after a fixed number of responses

or behaviors has occurred for example

the rat must press the lever three times

before the food pellet is released into

the box secondly a variable ratio

schedule the reinforcement is given

after a varying number of responses or

behaviors has occurred the number

required changes after each reward is

given this is unpredictable for example

the food pellet will be released into

the box after the levers pressed three

times then next time after six presses

then the next time after two presses

thirdly a fixed interval schedule

reinforcement is given after a fixed

amount of time elapses following the

behavior being performed this can be

predicted for example the rat would

receive the food pellet 10 seconds after

they press the lever every time and

fourthly variable interval schedule

reinforcement is given after a varying

amount of time elapses following the

behavior being performed this is

unpredictable for example the rat would

receive the food pellet 10 seconds after

they press the lever and then food

appears 15 seconds after they press the

lever then the next time seven seconds

after they press the lever now out of

all four of these reinforcement

schedules which one do you think leads

to the most behaviors occurring and is

the most resistant to extinction the

answer is variable ratio if the reward

is unpredictable it will keep you coming

back for more if you don't know what is

going to happen in terms of a reward and

you don't know when it's going to come

you will keep performing that behavior

let's focus on instagram to see this at

work in three ways number one you open

up the app and start scrolling through

the feed there is unpredictability in

whether you will find something you like

that excites and interests you and then

there's the pull to refresh feature

which reminds you an awful lot of slot

machines if i refresh now what might pop

up maybe i'll find something i like

number three and when you post photos

you are waiting and checking in to see

when the food pellet will be delivered i

mean when you get likes and comments

your behavior is being manipulated using

the ideas and research of bf skinner to

keep you using their app to steal your

attention

so now let's test yourself just to check

your understanding i'm going to give you

a scenario and then i'll ask you to

pause the video so you can decide which

type of consequence has been applied in

the scenario is it positive

reinforcement negative reinforcement

positive punishment or negative

punishment ready here we go let's

imagine a mother is going for a walk to

the park with her small child timmy

timmy's holding his mum's hand but when

he gets to a road he sees a little puppy

on the other side of the road he lets

goby's mummy's hand and runs across the

road to the little puppy

thankfully it was a quiet road and there

weren't any cars so timmy was safe

but of course that might not always be

the case timmy's mother wants to make

sure that timmy does not run across the

road on his own again so she turns to

timmy and says timmy you know you're not

supposed to cross the road on your own

that was very naughty because you have

done that we're not going to go to the

park now

instead we're going to go back home i

don't want you to do that again which of

the four consequences did timmy's mother

apply the correct answer was that she

applied negative punishment we know that

it was punishment rather than

reinforcement because she wanted to

weaken the behavior of running across

the road and we know that it was

negative instead of positive because

something was taken away not added he's

tripped to the park well done if you

answered correctly if you didn't get

that right don't worry let's have

another go it's another day and timmy's

mother is taking timmy to visit the

ducks before they set off she reminds

timmy not to cross the road on his own

so they set off to see the ducks when

they get to a road amazingly that same

little puppies across the road unlikely

i know maybe the puppies lost timmy

holds on to his mummy's hand and crosses

the road with her once they've safely

crossed the road together timmy's mother

turns to him and says well done timmy

i'm really proud of the way you cross

the road we're going to see the ducks

now and i'll even get you an ice cream

when we arrive which of the four

consequences is timmy's mother applied

this time

answer

positive reinforcement

we know it's reinforcement because she's

wanting timmy to repeat the good

behavior of crossing the road safely and

we know it must be positive because

something has been added praise and the

promise of an ice cream so now let's

test your understanding of schedules of

reinforcement for each of the following

examples can you identify which type of

reinforcement schedule it is

now that you hopefully have a better

understanding of operant conditioning

and the work of bf skinner bear in mind

how much of your behavior and the

behavior of those around you may be the

result of operant conditioning and

especially bear in mind all those ways

that reinforcement might be being used

to manipulate your behavior online being

aware of how your behavior is being

shaped and controlled is the first step

to doing something about it for more on

the other approaches in psychology check

out the links to the playlist in the

description below i hope you found this

video helpful and we'll see you in the

next one