Was WW1 Pointless? - War Goals Of Every Major Nation
Summary
TLDRThis script explores the multifaceted war aims of the major powers during WWI, challenging the perception of the war as futile. It delves into the political, ideological, and economic motivations behind the conflict, highlighting how these aims evolved throughout the war. From Austria-Hungary's desire to weaken Serbia to Germany's pursuit of European dominance and the Ottoman Empire's struggle for independence, the narrative underscores the complexity and shifting nature of each nation's objectives. It also touches on the ideological battles, with countries fighting for perceived virtues against opposing forces. The script concludes by noting the irony that despite the war's outcome, new aims would emerge just two decades later, foreshadowing WWII.
Takeaways
- 🌍 The First World War was perceived by nations involved as a necessary conflict with clear objectives, contrary to the common view of it being futile.
- ⚔️ The Central Powers, primarily Austria-Hungary and Germany, sought to maintain their power and influence by weakening Serbia and preventing Slavic expansion.
- 🇩🇪 Germany's war aims were complex and evolved over the war, ranging from territorial annexations to economic dominance through a proposed 'Mitteleuropa'.
- 🔄 The Ottoman Empire aimed to counter Russian and Balkan Slavic threats and used the war to consolidate its state, leading to the eventual formation of the Turkish Republic.
- 🇷🇺 Russia's war goals included maintaining its prestige as a great power, expanding influence in the Balkans, and controlling strategic territories like Constantinople.
- 🗼 France's war aims were centered on security and reclaiming Alsace-Lorraine, with some politicians advocating for a more aggressive policy against Germany.
- 🏴 Britain's entry into the war was prompted by the defense of Belgium and the balance of power in Europe, with aims to reduce German military might and expand empire.
- 🇮🇹 Italy joined the war with ambitions of territorial expansion and the completion of national unification, which led to disputes with emerging Slavic states.
- 🇺🇸 The United States entered the war with the dual objectives of ensuring its own security and reshaping the international order based on democracy and self-determination.
- 🔄 War aims were dynamic, changing with the war's progression, internal politics, and the evolving geopolitical landscape.
Q & A
What were the primary war aims of Austria-Hungary at the beginning of World War I?
-Austria-Hungary initially sought a local war to weaken Serbia, aiming to preserve its Great Power status and prevent Serbian expansion into Albania or Bosnia.
How did the war aims of Germany evolve during World War I?
-Germany's war aims shifted over the course of the war. Initially, they considered annexing territories and creating a German-dominated customs union in Europe. As the war progressed, there was a division among leaders between those who favored a negotiated peace and those who held onto maximalist aims.
What was the September Program, and how did it reflect Germany's war aims?
-The September Program was a policy document from fall 1914 that discussed possible annexations and the creation of a German-dominated customs union called Mitteleuropa, reflecting Germany's ambitions for economic and political dominance in Europe.
How did the Ottoman Empire's war aims differ from those of the Central Powers?
-The Ottoman Empire's war aims were more limited and focused on defensive measures against Russia and the Balkan Slavs, as well as canceling economic 'capitulations' to restore full independence. They also aimed for territorial gains after initial battlefield successes.
What were the Russian Empire's strategic goals in the Balkans during World War I?
-The Russian Empire aimed to increase its influence in the Balkans by supporting Serbia and considering the expansion of Serbia at Austria's expense. They also sought control of Constantinople and the Turkish Straits for access to the Mediterranean.
How did the February 1917 revolution in Russia impact its war aims?
-The February 1917 revolution led to a shift in Russia's war aims. The Provisional Government suggested a negotiated peace without annexations and framed the war as a struggle to preserve the revolution against reactionary Central Powers monarchies.
What were France's main security concerns that shaped its war aims during World War I?
-France's main security concerns were centered around containing a larger and more powerful Germany. They sought the return of Alsace-Lorraine, Belgian independence, and the destruction of Prussian militarism to ensure French security.
How did the British perspective on the war change after Germany's attack on Belgium in 1914?
-The attack on neutral Belgium by Germany was seen as a threat to the international order by Britain, leading them to join the war to uphold that order and prevent Germany from becoming the dominant power in Europe.
What were Italy's territorial ambitions when it joined the Allies in 1915?
-Italy aimed to gain Austro-Hungarian territory, including areas with Italian-speakers and defensible natural borders. They also sought new imperial conquests in Ottoman Anatolia and the Aegean, and possibly expansion of their African colonies.
What were the United States' primary objectives when it entered World War I in 1917?
-The United States entered the war with objectives to protect its own security and to reshape the international order based on democracy, free trade, and self-determination, envisioning a role for the League of Nations in upholding this new system.
Outlines
🌍 The Purpose and Aims of the First World War
The paragraph discusses the various aims and objectives that the Great Powers had when they entered the First World War. It emphasizes that war aims were political, ideological, or economic goals that governments sought to achieve through warfare. The paragraph also highlights that these aims could change over time and were not solely driven by banks or arms manufacturers. It introduces the ideological motivations of the powers, such as fighting for civilization and freedom against barbarism and materialism, as noted by H.G. Wells. The paragraph sets the stage for a detailed exploration of the specific war aims of each power involved in the conflict.
🎖️ War Aims of Central Powers: Austria-Hungary and Germany
This section delves into the war aims of the Central Powers, particularly Austria-Hungary and Germany. Austria-Hungary initially sought a local war to weaken Serbia but eventually aimed for territorial gains and the preservation of its Great Power status. The paragraph details the internal debates within Austria-Hungary regarding territorial aims and the eventual dependency on Germany. Germany's war aims are more complex and debated, ranging from early ambitions of annexations to later considerations of a negotiated peace. The September Program is mentioned as a reflection of Germany's potential expansionist goals, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is highlighted as a significant achievement of German aims in the East, despite the eventual failure to achieve long-term dominance in Europe.
🏰 The Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire's War Aims
The paragraph explores the war aims of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The Ottomans joined the war with limited aims due to their relative weakness, seeking to preserve their empire and independence by forming alliances and consolidating their state, which included internal repressions. The Russian Empire, on the other hand, aimed to maintain its prestige as a Great Power, support Serbia, and prevent German dominance in Europe. Russia also sought territorial gains, including control over Constantinople and the Turkish Straits. The paragraph outlines how the February 1917 revolution affected Russia's war aims, leading to a shift towards a negotiated peace without annexations and framing the war as a struggle to preserve the revolution.
🗼 France and Britain's Strategic War Aims
This section focuses on the war aims of France and Britain. France's aims were primarily centered around security and reclaiming Alsace-Lorraine, with various political factions advocating for further territorial gains or the breakup of Germany. French leaders also sought to weaken Germany's economic potential and ensure future security through alliances and new imperial ambitions in the Middle East. Britain's war aims were initially about maintaining the international order and preventing German dominance, which included restoring Belgian independence and limiting German military power. Later, Britain pursued imperial expansion in the Middle East and aimed to balance the post-war order to prevent French dominance. The paragraph also touches on the influence of American entry into the war and the changing nature of French and British war aims in response to the evolving conflict.
🇺🇸 The United States and Italy's War Aims in WWI
The final paragraph discusses the war aims of the United States and Italy. The United States entered the war with objectives to protect its security and reshape the international order based on democracy and self-determination, aiming to eliminate threats posed by the Central Powers. Italy joined the war with ambitions to complete its unification and expand its territory, with claims growing over the course of the war. The paragraph also notes the outcomes of the war for these countries, with the US achieving its security goals but not joining the League of Nations, and Italy gaining less territory than expected and facing internal unrest. The paragraph concludes with a reflection on the irony that both victors and vanquished would be forming new war aims just two decades later, foreshadowing the Second World War.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡War Aims
💡Central Powers
💡Allies
💡Mitteleuropa
💡Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
💡Self-Determination
💡League of Nations
💡Unconditional Surrender
💡Zimmerman Telegram
💡Sykes-Picot Agreement
Highlights
The First World War's perceived futility contrasts with the complex war aims of the Great Powers involved.
War aims encompassed political, ideological, economic goals that governments sought to achieve through conflict.
Austria-Hungary initially sought a local war to weaken Serbia, reflecting a broader desire to maintain Great Power status.
Germany's war aims were multifaceted, ranging from territorial annexations to the establishment of a German-dominated Mitteleuropa.
The Ottoman Empire's entry into the war was driven by a defensive stance against Slavic neighbors and a quest for independence.
Russia aimed to maintain its Great Power status, with ambitions in the Balkans and control over Constantinople.
France's war aims were primarily focused on security, including the recovery of Alsace-Lorraine and the weakening of Germany.
Britain's objectives included upholding the international order, ensuring the security of its empire, and limiting German power.
Italy's war aims were expansionist, with desires for territorial gains from Austria-Hungary and aspirations in the Ottoman Empire.
The United States entered the war with the goal of ensuring its security and reshaping the international order through democracy and self-determination.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk is highlighted as a significant event where Germany aimed to control Eastern Europe's resources.
The war aims of the Great Powers were not static but evolved over the course of the war, reflecting changing circumstances and strategies.
The documentary '16 Days in Berlin' provides an in-depth look at the final battle of World War 2, offering a detailed portrayal of historical events.
Nebula is a streaming service offering exclusive historical documentaries, including '16 Days in Berlin', ad-free.
The documentary series is a production of Real Time History, emphasizing a commitment to detailed and comprehensive historical analysis.
Transcripts
The First World War is often seen as futile and pointless. Millions of men fought and died for
years, but no one was satisfied with the outcome, which did not bring a lasting peace. But that is
not how governments and many people saw the war as it was being fought. So what did the countries
fighting actually want to achieve? In other words, what was the purpose of the First World War?
To understand why the First World war was fought, we have to look at the war
aims of the Great Powers who fought it. War aims are the political, ideological,
or economic goals a government decided it wants to achieve or defend by fighting. Sometimes,
the Powers changed their war aims depending on the course of the war, internal debates,
or reactions to enemy war aims. We should also remember World War One was
a war between states – governments decided to go to war, not banks,
arms manufacturers, or other interest groups. Ideologically, most powers saw themselves
as fighting for virtuous ideals, like civilization, freedom, and culture,
against enemies representing barbarism or soulless materialism. Some have argued that
these ideas were the most important aims of all: “We fight not to destroy a nation, but to kill
a nest of ideas [...] The ultimate purpose of this war is propaganda, the destruction
of certain beliefs and the creation of others.” [H.G. Wells] (Strachan FWW 1115)
So bearing that in mind let’s start with the Central Powers. When Austria-Hungary
declared war on Serbia in July 1914, it just wanted a local war to weaken Serbia.
Some had long argued for this, while others, like Franz Ferdinand himself, were opposed:
“Even if we settled the score with Serbia without anyone troubling us,
what would we gain from it? A band of thieves, assassins, bandits, and a few plum
trees.” [Archduke Franz Ferdinand] (Le Naour 58) But in July 1914 he was gone. Vienna decided that
reducing Serbia would preserve its Great Power status and prevent the Serbs from acquiring
Albania or menacing Bosnia in the future. Once the war became generalized, the Austrians
debated territorial aims, like the annexation or vassalization of Serbia (though there was no
agreement), preservation of the border with Italy, and the possibility of creating a Central-Powers
friendly Poland. Some politicians also wanted parts of Albania or Montenegro.
Foreign Minister Ottokar Czernin, for example, hoped that if Austria allowed Germany a free
hand with Poland, it might get territory from Romania and free hand in the Balkans.
As the situation worsened, Vienna also aimed to maintain its independence, since Germany had
taken control of most military decisions. By late 1917 Austria-Hungary had, in a way, won its war:
Serbia had been crushed, Russia was all but out of the war, and Italian forces were on the defensive
deep in Italy . But the Dual Monarchy’s government, economy, society were approaching
collapse. It had also become dependent on and subservient to Germany, which represented a
failure to preserve its prestige and power. In the final year of the war, Emperor Karl aimed
for a white peace, and to preserve the state by making concessions to the empire’s Slavic peoples.
Austria-Hungary, of course, achieved none of what it intended when it started the war in 1914.
The war aims of its ally Germany, on the other hand, are perhaps the most hotly debated of all.
One argument is that Germany long planned on starting a war before Russia got too strong
and took advantage of the July Crisis to make a bid for world power in 1914. And
in the war’s early days, Kaiser Wilhelm and the high command talked of annexing Russian Poland,
the Baltics, Belgium, and northern France . But other historians argue German politicians
were more moderate. A fall 1914 policy document known as the September Program
discussed possible annexations, satellite states, and more land in Africa – but it also
left these questions open . The Program also envisioned a future Mitteleuropa,
a German-dominated customs union. German leaders discussed whether the union would include Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Belgium, or perhaps even France, Italy and the Netherlands as well.
Mitteleuropa was an economic goal on the surface, but was really about German dominance in Europe.
As the war dragged on, German leaders divided further. Some favoured a negotiated
compromise peace, a Scheidemann Peace, while others stuck to maximalist aims,
a Hindenburg Peace. Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn’s aim was modest: “If we survive
against this coalition of superior strength and emerge able to negotiate credibly, we will have
won.” [Erich von Falkenhayn] (Chickering, 107) Berlin did make a peace offer in December 1916,
though Germany refused to evacuate the occupied territories, showing Berlin
still hoped for extensive gains from the war. The Reichstag then voted for a Peace
Resolution in July 1917 that gave up annexing territory . By then though, Germany had become
a virtual military dictatorship where the High Command held more sway than parliament.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, a dictated peace signed with Bolshevik Russia in 1918,
fulfilled Germany’s aims in the East: Germany indirectly controlled Finland,
Ukraine, the Baltics, and Poland, and maintained occupation forces.
The treaty crippled Russia, gave Germany control of Eastern Europe’s resources,
and, politicians hoped, could be used as a tool in future negotiations with the Allies.
Even in summer 1918 many German military leaders, still called for annexations in
the west. In the fall, with the army in full retrea t, the civilian government hoped to
salvage what it could by embracing Wilsonian self-determination to avoid losing territory.
So German goals did indeed trend towards European dominance. Ironically,
partly because of the harshness of Brest-Litovsk, the Allies
took a harder line. Meanwhile Germany’s Ottoman ally had much more limited aims.
The Ottoman Empire joined the war in October 1914, and its aims were shaped by its relative
weakness after defeats in recent wars . The Sultan’s government reasoned that if they
stayed neutral, whoever won the war could impose their will on an isolate ed Constantinople:
“The Slavic world is growing more rapidly than its neighbours…a strong Ottoman state
must form an alliance with Germany and take a defensive position against the Russian and Balkan
Slavs.” [Abdurrahman Cami Baykut](McMeekin 87) Politicians were divided as to which side to join,
but the leaders of the governing Committee of Union and Progress chose the Central
Powers because they considered the Allies a greater threat – the Russian
Empire wanted to conquer their capital, and the French and British had imposed
one-sided economic treaties in the past. Holding off the Russians and cancelling
the economic “capitulations” would restore the Empire’s full independence.
Given the political unrest the Empire had suffered before 1914, and surging Turkish nationalism,
the government also used the war to achieve its internal aim of state consolidation . This
included repressions that mostly targeted Christian Greeks and, especially, Armenians.
The deportation and killing of much of these populations, in the eyes of the government, made
the Empire a more stable, Muslim-dominated state. After battlefield success in 1915, the Russian
revolution, and Greek entry on the Allied side in 1917 Constantinople formed territorial goals
as well: they wanted the northeastern regions lost to Russia in 1877 (which
they briefly recovered after Brest-Litovsk), Aegean islands to protect the Dardanelles,
and to recover Egypt and Tripolitania from Britain and Italy. They also planned to increase Ottoman
influence in the Caucasus, Iran, and Afghanistan – though Germany was uneasy with this objective.
The Ottomans failed to preserve their empire, but paradoxically they did consolidate their state,
which contributed to a post-war Turkish Republic . Now let’s turn to the Allies,
starting with the Russian Empire.
One of St. Petersburg’s aims in 1914 was maintaining its Great Power prestige after defeat
in the Russo-Japanese War , the Revolution of 1905, and a diplomatic defeat in Austria-Hungary’s
annexation of Bosnia in 1908 . Russian leaders felt they couldn’t afford to back down over
Serbia in 1914, even though the High Command worried the army wasn’t ready for a general war.
Tsar Nicholas II made the position clear when war came: “We have now to intercede not only for a
related country, unjustly attacked (…) but also to safeguard the honour, dignity, and integrity
of Russia, and her position among the great powers.” [Nicholas II] (Schimmelpenninck, 3)
During the war, St. Petersburg claimed German and Austro-Hungarian territory, and wanted to prevent
Germany from becoming dominant in Europe. Some of this territory might be included in an autonomous
Polish kingdom under the Tsar, and they suggested breaking up Austria-Hungary much earlier than any
other Ally. The Russians also hoped Serbia would expand at Austria’s expense. All this
would increase Russian influence in the Balkans. Once the Ottomans joined the Central Powers,
Russia aimed for control of Constantinople and the Turkish Straits, which would allow
them access to the Mediterranean and give them control over an Orthodox Holy city.
After the February 1917 revolution, the weakness of the Provisional Government and the influence
of the Petrograd Soviet changed Russia’s aims . The Kerensky government now suggested
a negotiated peace without annexations, and framed the war as a struggle to preserve the
revolution against reactionary Central Powers monarchies . When the Bolsheviks overthrew the
Provisional Government in October, they wanted peace at any price to consolidate
their revolution and focus on the civil war against the counter-revolutionary Whites.
France’s political and military war aims were mostly about security in the face of a larger,
more powerful Germany. Public discussion was limited, but in December 1914,
President Raymond Poincaré stated France wanted the return of Alsace-Lorraine,
Belgian independence, the destruction of Prussian militarism, and a reorganized
Europe that would ensure French security . Parliamentarians hotly debated territorial
claims beyond Alsace-Lorraine. Some, both on the right and centre-left, wanted to extend French
influence in some form over Belgium, Luxembourg, and Germany’s Saarland and Rhineland regions.
More radical politicians proposed that France support an independent state in the Rhineland
or even annex it. A few hardliners proposed breaking up all of Germany into smaller pieces.
Prime Minister Georges Clémenceau summed up French resolve, equating waging war
with achieving war aims: “My foreign policy and my home policy are the same. At home I
wage war. Abroad, I wage war… I shall go on waging war.” [Georges Clémenceau] (Tison, 4)
French leaders also wanted to weaken German economic potential in the future, including
inter-Allied oversight of raw material production in Europe. Some argued for a post-war political
union with Belgium and Luxembourg, or a customs union with the Low Countries and Italy – all
to secure French influence and security against Germany. What never changed were the objectives
to defeat Germany, recover Alsace-Lorraine, and create a new security architecture in Europe.
France also developed new imperial ambitions. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 granted
France direct control and a zone of influence in what were then Ottoman lands in the Middle East,
but Paris never clearly defined France’s goals in the region until after the war.
France’s late-war goals also included future security guarantees from the United States and
Britain. American entry into the war, the desire of the French army and people for peace , pressure
from the French socialist parties, and the Bolshevik revolution in 1917 all modified
French aims. Without Russian support, they dropped the idea of a Rhenish state or breakup
of Germany. France had not wanted the breakup of Austria-Hungary for fear Germany might gain from
it, but when President Wilson insisted, the French pushed for the new states in Central Europe to be
as large as possible to resist potential German influence in the future – there was even talk of
a Greater Poland including Lithuania and part of Ukraine . France also wanted close relations with
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, and potentially Ukraine to counter Germany.
In the end France recovered Alsace-Lorraine, gained new colonies and partly weakened Germany,
but failed to create a Europe where France was safe – partly because of British resistance.
In 1914, the British government was divided about joining the war, until Germany attacked
neutral Belgium. Germany’s violation of Belgian sovereignty looked to London like a threat to
the international order it wanted to uphold. If Britain didn’t join the war, Germany might become
the dominant power in Europe and leave Britain isolated – something politician Sir Edward
Grey had worried about as far back as 1911: “The moment the weakest Powers in Europe were
assailed, either by diplomacy or by force, one by one they would appeal to us to help them.
[If we] sat by and looked on and did nothing, then people ought to realise that the result
would be one great combination in Europe, outside which we should be left without a
friend” [Sir Edward Grey] (Jeffrey, 47) Britain saw the restoration of Belgian
independence, reducing German military and naval power, and limiting German influence in Africa
and the Middle East as its primary war aims in 1914. To keep Britain’s global empire and
maritime trade secure, Germany must not be able to project its power on the high seas.
In 1916, Britain added imperial expansion to its goals, with the Sykes-Picot Agreement dividing
the Ottoman Middle East with France. Britain’s potential new territories in the region would
improve the security of the Suez Canal and sea lanes to India, and provide more resources,
especially oil. British presence in the Middle East would also counter future Russian influence,
especially once Russia became a hostile Communist power in late 1917.
These Realpolitik war aims conveniently overlapped with liberal ideas of free trade,
and the independence and freedom of small nations:
“We have battled and will continue to battle our hardest for the common cause in Europe. But on
behalf of that cause, as well as in defence of our existence, we shall find ourselves compelled
to complete the liberation of the Arabs, to make secure the independence of Persia,
and if we can, of Armenia, and to protect tropical Africa from German economic and
military exploitation. All these objects are justifiable in themselves and don’t become less
so because they also increase the general sphere of British influence, and afford a strategical
security [...]” [Leo Amery] (Jeffrey, 58) During the Peace Conference, the UK’s
diplomatic goals shifted to trying to make sure German commerce would partly recover,
and that France would not become too dominant in the post-war order.
The UK achieved imperial expansion, restored Belgian independence, and eliminated the
German fleet and colonial empire. Italy though, was quite unhappy with its results.
Italy joined the Allies in 1915, since nationalists wanted to complete the
unification of the country that had started in the 19th century. Their position won out
over the neutralist and socialist camps, both of whom wanted to keep Italy out of the war.
Rome didn’t have clear war aims before Italy joined,
but its claims soon grew according to the policy known as “sacred egoism.”
Italy wanted Austro-Hungarian territory – not only where Italian-speakers lived,
but defensible so-called natural borders in the Alps and surrounding the Adriatic. They also hoped
for new imperial conquests in Ottoman Anatolia and the Aegean, and possibly a deal to expand Italian
colonies in Africa in exchange for the British and French taking German colonies elsewhere.
Later in the war, Italians debated whether they would be strong enough to protect everything
they claimed if they ever received it - especially after the Russian revolution removed an ally and
potential rival. The threat of a victorious Tsarist Russia influencing Central European
Slavs on Italy’s doorstep disappeared, and a potential Yugoslav state became the new challenge.
Prime minister Vittorio Orlando saw an opportunity: “When imperial Russia’s triumph
was a possibility, with the immense influence it would have gained over the Slavs of Austria and
the Balkans, which would have become one of its branches to the Adriatic and the Mediterranean,
taking territorial precautions could be justified. Not today. Today the Slavs of Austria, the Serbs,
the Yugoslavs are very disheartened; they feel they have lost their ancient and powerful
protector, and look to us. If we know how to handle things and we offer them friendship,
our prestige, in the alliance, as the main protectors of their cause, will increase,
after the Russian protection has failed […].” : [Vittorio Orlando] (Baravelli, 5)
But the more aggressive camp, led by Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino or extreme nationalists
like Gabriele D’Annunzio, won out, and Italy retained its early-war goals, supported the
complete dismemberment of Austria-Hungary , and clashed with the Yugoslavs over
territorial claims at the Peace Conference. When the peace treaties were signed, Italy
gained less territory than Rome expected, its relations with Yugoslavia were poor,
and it was wracked by social unrest . It temporarily also gained territory in Anatolia,
which it quickly gave up in the face of Turkish resistance and instability at home.
The United States entered the war in April 1917 with political and ideological objectives:
to protect its own security and to remake the international order. Many Americans saw
the Central Powers’ actions as a direct threat to US safety. Beyond the US lives and property
lost to German U-Boats when the US was still neutral , the infamous Zimmerman Telegram,
in which Germany proposed an alliance with Mexico against the US, caused Washington to
see Germany as a real threat . And, if the Central Powers won the war, that might mean
a worrying German presence in what the US saw as its backyard – a peace settlement might have seen
the Germans make claims for territory or bases in French or British possessions in the Caribbean,
South America, or even Canada . So, one US war aim was to eliminate this potential danger,
since Washington feared if they stayed neutral, a Central Powers victory prove dangerous.
The most well-known US war aim was to reimagine an international order based on democracy,
free trade, and self-determination. The new system would be upheld by the League of Nations , which
President Wilson wanted to create as part of the peace settlement. At first, Wilson called
for peace without victory, and saw the root problem of the international system, and the
cause of the war, as imperialism and autocracy. But, partly because of the harsh terms of the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, Wilson became convinced that Germany had to be
weakened. However, in contrast to the British and French, he still wanted Germany to quickly
recover and join the post-war League of Nations. Wilson’s advisor, Colonel House, hoped the League
of Nations would guarantee peace with Germany: “… if after establishing the League, we are so
stupid as to let Germany train and arm a large army and again become a menace to the world,
we would deserve the fate which such folly would bring upon us.” [Edward House] (Macmillan 182)
In the end the US achieved its own security goals by contributing the defeat of the Central Powers,
but did not achieve Wilson’s international vision, and did not join the League of Nations.
So while it is often said that the First World War was fought for nothing, historically speaking this
wasn’t the case for the countries who fought it. They all had distinct war aims, some moral, some
expansionist, and some defensive, which changed and evolved over the course of the war. What they
did not know is that both victors and vanquished would be forming new war aims just 20 years later.
And unlike 1918, the Second World War in Europe wouldn’t end with a ceasefire but
only with unconditional surrender of Germany in May 1945. In the final weeks of the war the
Red Army launched a massive offensive from the banks of the Oder river to take Berlin,
the capital of Nazi Germany where its leader Adolf Hitler was holding out in his bunker.
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