Roman Engineering: Crash Course History of Science #6

Summary

This script explores the Roman Empire's engineering prowess, highlighting their innovations in concrete, aqueducts, and road construction that have stood the test of time. It contrasts the Romans' practical achievements with their limited theoretical contributions to science, emphasizing the political nature of knowledge and the dichotomy between 'useful' and 'theoretical' knowledge. The script also touches on the role of slavery in Roman engineering and the ethical implications of technological advancements.

Takeaways

• 🏛 The Romans were adept at engineering and constructed enduring structures like roads and aqueducts, which are still standing today.
• 🏗 They utilized arches and domes in their architecture, creating large, open spaces that were visually impressive.
• 🚰 Roman aqueducts were an engineering marvel, efficiently moving thousands of tons of water to supply their cities.
• 📚 The Romans inherited much of their knowledge from the Greeks, including geometry, physics, and astronomy.
• 🏛️ The Romans' practical application of Greek knowledge led to advancements in engineering but not necessarily in theoretical understanding.
• 🔍 The distinction between 'useful' and 'theoretical' knowledge was made by Aristotle, influencing how the Romans viewed knowledge.
• 🏫 Institutions like the Library of Alexandria and the Museum in Pergamon were centers of learning that contributed to the spread of knowledge.
• 🏗️ Roman concrete, or opus caementitium, was a significant innovation that allowed for the construction of durable and complex structures.
• 🛣️ The Appian Way is an example of Roman road-building, showcasing their advanced logistics and the importance of infrastructure for trade and military purposes.
• 👥 Roman engineering achievements were supported by a large labor force, which included a significant number of slaves, highlighting the political nature of technology and science.

Q & A

What is the significance of Roman concrete in the context of the script?

Roman concrete, or opus caementitium, was a significant innovation that allowed the Romans to create durable structures with unique shapes like domes. It was used in the construction of the Pantheon, which features a massive concrete dome that has stood for nearly two thousand years.

How did the Romans' use of arches and domes in architecture differ from right-angled structures?

The Romans discovered that arches could support more weight than straight joints, which was crucial for moving heavy loads like water over long distances. This understanding led to the construction of arched aqueducts and allowed for the creation of monumental buildings with large, open interiors.

What role did the Greek influence play in Roman knowledge and engineering?

The Romans inherited much of their knowledge from the Greeks, particularly in geometry, physics, astronomy, and other disciplines. Roman engineering built upon Greek engineering, and their culture is often referred to as 'Greco-Roman' due to the integration of Greek thought and knowledge.

What was the function of the Museum in Alexandria during the Hellenistic period?

The Museum in Alexandria was not a museum in the modern sense but functioned more like a research university. It was a center for learning and research, attracting scholars from across the Hellenistic world.

Who was Archimedes and why is he significant in the context of Roman and Greek history?

Archimedes was a renowned mathematician and inventor from Syracuse who fought for the Greeks against the Romans. He is famous for his work in geometry, inventing the water screw and compound pulley, and designing various machines for warfare. His death at the hands of a Roman soldier symbolizes the end of an era of Greek science.

What is the difference between technē and epistēmē as described in the script?

Technē, from which we derive 'technology,' refers to practical, hands-on knowledge that is learned by doing and can be seen in the real world. Epistēmē, the root of 'epistemology,' represents theoretical knowledge, which is abstract and often represented by formulas and theories.

Why was Claudius Ptolemy's work on planetary motion influential?

Claudius Ptolemy developed a complex mathematical model to explain the observed movements of the planets, incorporating epicycles and deferents. His work, the Almagest, became the basis for understanding the universe in the medieval Christian and Islamic worlds.

How did the Romans' engineering achievements impact the growth of their cities and the empire?

Roman engineering, particularly in the construction of roads, aqueducts, and sewer systems, allowed for efficient movement of troops, trade, and resources. This infrastructure supported the growth of cities, the operation of mines, and the irrigation of dry lands, contributing to the stability and expansion of the Roman Empire.

What is the historical significance of the Appian Way mentioned in the script?

The Appian Way was a crucial Roman road that connected Rome to the southeastern regions of Italy. It was an engineering marvel with drainage ditches and a cambered design to facilitate efficient movement of troops and resources, contributing to the military and economic strength of the Roman Empire.

How did the Roman state's optimization of public works and infrastructure reflect its political power?

The Roman state's development of a complex legal system, a well-supplied army, public food assistance, and massive public games, along with the construction of infrastructure like roads, aqueducts, and the Colosseum, demonstrated its political power and ability to mobilize resources for the benefit of the empire and its citizens.

Outlines

00:00

🏟 Roman Engineering and the Legacy of Greek Knowledge

The Romans, known for their monumental engineering feats such as roads, aqueducts, and buildings, inherited much of their knowledge from the Greeks. Despite not advancing natural philosophy significantly, they built on Greek engineering to create impressive structures. The Romans' practical knowledge, or technē, was more celebrated than their theoretical knowledge, epistēmē. The script introduces the debate on whether understanding something is about being able to explain it abstractly or being able to use it practically without explanation. It also discusses the influence of Greek thought and institutions like the Museum and Library in shaping Roman culture.

05:02

🌐 Ptolemy's Contributions and Roman Technē

Claudius Ptolemy, a significant figure in the Greco-Roman world, worked on epistemic questions and is known for his work on planetary motion, which was based on perfect circles with Earth at the center. His work, the Almagest, became a foundational text in medieval Christian and Islamic worlds. Ptolemy also contributed to geography with his book 'Geography,' which was used for centuries. The Romans are remembered more for their engineering, or technē, such as the development of Roman concrete and the construction of the Pantheon and aqueducts. The script highlights the Roman innovations in infrastructure, including the Appian Way and the Cloaca Maxima, and how these advancements were tied to the state's political power and the use of slave labor.

10:04

🏛 The Political Nature of Roman Engineering and Knowledge

Roman engineering was deeply intertwined with politics, as the state optimized technologies for its benefit. The script discusses the role of slaves in the construction and maintenance of Roman infrastructure, highlighting the contrast between Roman slavery and that of the American South. It also mentions the slave revolt led by Spartacus and its brutal suppression. The text by Vitruvius, 'Architecture,' is noted for its blend of technical knowledge and aesthetic principles, influencing later works like Da Vinci's 'Vitruvian Man.' The script concludes by emphasizing the political nature of both science and technology, suggesting that their value is determined by how humans choose to use them.

Keywords

💡Concrete

Concrete is a composite material made from a mixture of cement, aggregate, water, and sometimes additives. In the context of the video, the Romans are credited with inventing a form of concrete over two thousand years ago, which they used to build roads and structures that are still standing today. The durability and versatility of Roman concrete allowed them to create innovative architectural designs, such as arches and domes, which are highlighted as significant achievements in the video.

💡Arches

An arch is a curved structure that can span an opening and support weight on its vertical sides. The video discusses how the Romans used arches in their architecture to create monumental buildings with large, open interiors. The use of arches allowed for the distribution of weight across the structure, which was a significant advancement in engineering and construction, exemplified by the enduring architecture mentioned in the script.

💡Aqueducts

Aqueducts are ancient engineering structures designed to convey water over long distances. The video describes how the Romans moved thousands of tons of water using aqueducts to supply their cities, showcasing their advanced engineering capabilities. Aqueducts were crucial for the growth and sustenance of Roman cities, and their arched design allowed for efficient water transportation over long distances.

💡Engineering

Engineering refers to the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical problems, often involving the design, construction, and maintenance of structures, machines, or systems. The video emphasizes the Romans' prowess in engineering, particularly in the fields of construction and infrastructure. Roman engineering is celebrated for its practicality and effectiveness, as seen in their roads, aqueducts, and monumental buildings.

💡Greco-Roman

The term 'Greco-Roman' refers to the cultural and intellectual traditions that combined elements of Greek and Roman civilizations. The video discusses how the Romans inherited and spread Greek knowledge, leading to a Greco-Roman culture where classical Greek thought was preserved and advanced. This blend of cultures is seen in various aspects of Roman life, including their approach to science and engineering.

💡Archimedes

Archimedes was a renowned mathematician, physicist, and engineer from ancient Greece. The video mentions him as an example of a Greek 'architecton' who contributed significantly to mathematics and engineering. He is known for his work on geometrical proofs and the development of various machines, including the water screw and compound pulley, which had practical applications in irrigation and warfare.

💡Technē vs. Epistēmē

Technē and epistēmē are Greek terms that differentiate between practical and theoretical knowledge. The video explains that technē, or practical knowledge, was associated with the creation of tangible things like weapons and buildings, while epistēmē, or theoretical knowledge, was linked to abstract concepts and scientific understanding. The Romans are noted for their advancements in technē, as seen in their engineering feats, rather than in the theoretical sciences.

💡Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy was a Greco-Roman astronomer, geographer, and mathematician. The video highlights his work in astronomy, particularly his attempts to explain the movement of celestial bodies using a geocentric model with epicycles. His work, the Almagest, became a foundational text in astronomy for many centuries, illustrating the Greco-Roman period's focus on theoretical knowledge.

💡Infrastructure

Infrastructure refers to the basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. The video discusses Roman infrastructure, including roads, aqueducts, and sewers, which were essential for the functioning and growth of their cities. The Romans' advanced infrastructure allowed for efficient movement of goods, people, and water, demonstrating their engineering capabilities and the political importance of such projects.

💡Slavery

Slavery is a system in which individuals are treated as property and are forced to work against their will. The video touches on the role of slaves in Roman society, noting that they were often the labor force behind large-scale projects like roads and buildings. The video also mentions the slave revolt led by Spartacus, highlighting the harsh realities of Roman slavery and its connection to the creation and maintenance of Roman engineering marvels.

💡Vitruvius

Vitruvius was a Roman engineer and architect whose work, De Architectura (On Architecture), is one of the most influential texts on architecture and urban planning. The video references Vitruvius's ideas, which combined practical engineering with aesthetic principles, and his influence on later thinkers, such as Leonardo da Vinci's 'Vitruvian Man.' Vitruvius's work represents the Roman emphasis on the harmonious integration of form and function in engineering and design.

Highlights

The Romans invented concrete over two thousand years ago, contributing to the longevity of their structures.

Roman architecture utilized arches and domes to create spacious interiors, reflecting their engineering prowess.

Aqueducts were engineered to transport thousands of tons of water, showcasing Roman hydraulic engineering.

The debate on understanding through abstract explanation versus practical application is introduced.

Roman knowledge was largely inherited from the Greeks, including geometry, physics, and astronomy.

The Museum in Alexandria and the Library in Pergamon were centers of learning and research.

Roman culture, termed 'Greco-Roman,' continued the spread of classical Greek thought.

Roman engineering focused on practical improvements rather than theoretical advancements.

Archimedes, a Greek mathematician and inventor, contributed significantly to geometry and mechanics.

Aristotle's division of knowledge into 'useful' and 'theoretical' is discussed, influencing modern concepts of technology and science.

Claudius Ptolemy's work in astronomy and geography was highly influential during the Greco-Roman period.

Roman concrete, or opus caementitium, revolutionized construction with its durability and moldability.

The Pantheon's concrete dome is a testament to Roman engineering, standing for nearly two millennia.

Roman aqueducts, with their arch design, enabled long-distance water transportation, supporting urban growth.

The Cloaca Maxima, an innovative sewer system, changed the landscape of Rome.

Sextus Julius Frontinus' comprehensive report on Rome's aqueducts and sewers was crucial for their maintenance.

The Appian Way, an early Roman road, demonstrated the importance of logistics in military and civilian life.

Roman infrastructure, including roads and public works, was funded by taxes and often built by slave labor.

The Colosseum's engineering, including a retractable roof, showcased Roman ingenuity in public entertainment venues.

Roman slavery was integral to their engineering and construction, with slaves contributing to knowledge creation.

Vitruvius's 'Architecture' linked human body proportions to mathematical principles, influencing later works like Da Vinci's 'Vitruvian Man'.

The political nature of Roman engineering is highlighted, emphasizing the ethical considerations of technological advancement.

Transcripts

The Romans invented concrete over two thousands years ago and built roads which are still

around today.

They used arches and domes to create monumental buildings with big airy interiors that looked

truly Olympian—also still around.

And they moved thousands of tons of water using aqueducts to keep a bustling population

un-thirsty.

These old buildings?

Also still around!

But did the Romans come up with ideas about physics?

Like why arches support weight differently than right-angled structures?

Did they ask proto-chemistry questions—that is, “what is stuff?”—such as which tiny

things make up a good concrete?

Nope.

Let’s look at what knowledge the Romans made in order to set up a debate that, spoiler

alert, is still going on: do you understand something when you can explain why it’s

true, in the abstract?

Or do you understand something when you can do things with it, even if you can’t explain why?

[Intro Music Plays]

The Romans inherited much of their knowledge from the Greeks.

From 323 to 31 BCE, the geometry, physics, astronomy, and other disciplines developed

by the Presocratics, Plato, and Aristotle spread throughout the Hellenistic world.

This “world” combined the parts of Asia, Africa, and Europe influenced by Greek thought

due in large part to Alexander’s brief supervillain rampage.

In Alexandria, Egypt—the biggest of the seventy cities that Alexander named after

himself—the kings paid for the Museum, or “house of the muses.”

This wasn’t a museum in the modern sense of the word but more like a research university.

In Pergamon, in what is now Turkey, the kings paid for the Library, which was—wait for

it—a really big collection of books.

These institutions lasted for centuries, drawing visitors from far and wide.

Alas, over the same period of time that these Greeks were supporting research, a tribe from

central Italy called the Romans went on a new supervillain rampage… that also lasted

for centuries.

The Romans would continue to spread classical Greek thought: we even call their culture

“Greco-Roman.”

But natural philosophy during Greco-Roman times didn’t advance much.

Today, we remember the Romans for their engineering—or ability to improve some real-world system—not

their deep thoughts about why the world is the way it is.

Roman engineering built on Greek engineering.

Making knowledge is political, and most politicians really want the same thing: bigger catapults

and lots of ships.

So Greco-Roman leaders did what heads of state everywhere have always done: they paid smart

people to make bigger weapons.

In the ancient Mediterranean, the job of building warmachines was called architecton, or architect.

Most of these “architects” were anonymous and didn’t write down theories.

But, a few of them did.

The most famous architecton, Archimedes of Syracuse, fought for the Greeks against the

Romans.

Archimedes is famous today as a mathematician: he worked out many geometrical proofs

including the area of a circle, and pioneered infinitesimals and exponents.

Archimedes also invented a lot of useful contraptions, including the water screw and compound pulley.

The water screw pumps water by turning a screw inside a pipe.

This was immediately useful in irrigation.

And a mechanical way to move water uphill is just plain cool!

Archimedes also designed various warmachines to kill the Romans who were trying to take

over his hometown.

He was so impressive that the Roman general ordered his troops to capture, not kill, him.

But one soldier particularly low on chill got frustrated when Archimedes wouldn’t

stop working on a mathematical proof.

In a sense, Archimedes kept it so real that he got himself and, symbolically, an era of

Greek science killed.

Archimedes was interested in some of the natural philosophy that explained his machines, but

for most other thinkers of his time, astronomy, physics, and math were important for abstract,

quasi-religious reasons.

Making weapons was a matter of political power.

The heavens from which rain fell were perfect and abstract.

Shipbuilding was an art, something learned from practice.

It was not a matter of understanding hydrodynamics, or the chemical properties of wood that make

it bendy and floaty.

Aristotle came up with a handy division between these types of knowledge that we still use today.

He classified knowledge as either “useful” or “theoretical.”

Useful knowledge was called technē, which is where we get “technology.”

“Technology” has until recently, in historical terms, been connected to the idea of “art”—meaning

something you learn by doing, and can see in the real world.

Theoretical knowledge, on the other hand, was epistēmē—the root of our word epistemology,

the study of knowledge.

Epistēmē is the sort of knowledge we most associate with “science.”

Science is abstract, represented by formulas.

When historians of science talk about the possibilities of what we can know, they use

the word “epistemic.”

One of the most influential thinkers working on epistemic questions during the Greco-Roman

period was Claudius Ptolemy, a Greek or Greek-speaking southern Egyptian living in Roman-held Alexandria.

In addition to optics and the science of music, Ptolemy took up Plato’s old problem of how

to fit the observed data about how the planets move to the theory of a cosmos made of perfect

circles with earth at its center.

He got really, really into this, mixing together three kinds of solutions in order to make

the math work: epicycles, for example, were the tiny circles that the planets moved along…

around bigger circles.

Ptolemy’s version of the cosmos, a mathematically neater version of Aristotle’s and Plato’s,

became the basis of the understanding of the universe across much of the medieval Christian

and Islamic world.

His great astronomical work, the Mathematical Syntaxis, was renamed by Arabic scholars as

the Almagest, or The Greatest.

Fun fact: the Almagest may have been edited by one of the first recorded female natural

philosophers, Hypatia of Alexandria.

So we’re on episode six of History of Science and, yes, this is the first mention of a woman...

Ptolemy was also pretty much the authority on earthly geography in the Greco-Roman world.

His book on the subject, called Geography, discusses the data he uses and why.

It provided a resource for other scholars to use in more accurately picturing and drawing

the world, for centuries.

Oh, and none of these thinkers thought that the earth was flat.

Flat earth theory may have more proponents today than it did in Greco-Roman times.

As Ptolemy shows, epistemic work was important to a few Greco-Romans.

But what they’re really remembered for is their technē, their engineering.

For example, people had been mixing together water and rocks to make cement for generations.

But by 150 BCE, the Romans began mixing volcanic ash, rocks, water, and lime to make Roman

concrete, or opus caementitium, which is one of those technologies that the smarty-pants like

to call "a big freakin' deal.”

This new stuff was super durable and could be poured into weird shapes like domes.

The Pantheon or Really Big Temple in Rome is capped by a 143-foot diameter dome of concrete

that has stood for almost two thousand years.

But the Romans found out that arches support more weight than straight joints.

This matters when you’re trying to move something really heavy, like water.

Thus the Romans were able to move water long distances using arch-y aqueducts.

This in turn allowed Roman cities to grow in population, mines to run, and dry lands

to be irrigated.

The Romans changed their lands in other ways, too: they drained the marshes of their home

city using an innovative sewer system called the Cloaca Maxima, which literally means “Biggest

Sewer.”

Great name, my dudes.

The politician and civil engineer Sextus Julius Frontinus wrote a landmark, comprehensive,

two-volume report on the design for the aqueducts and sewers of Rome… which luckily a Renaissance

scholar found a copy of, just as the city recovered from a roughly one thousand year

downturn in population.

Yes, that’s right: Roman infrastructural engineering lasted through a millennium of

neglect and still worked!

But as great as gigantic open rooms, fresh drinking water, and big-big sewers are, the

most important feat of Roman engineering may have been their highways.

We hear a lot about “infrastructure” today.

And states have always made roads to foster trade and move troops.

But Roman road builders took the art of logistics to another level.

Show us what a big deal this was, Thought Bubble!

Consider the Appian Way: running from Rome southeast through the “heel” of Italy,

it connected several not very urbanized regions of the peninsula.

Its first leg was built in 312 BCE—before Roman concrete was perfected...

...using cement over layers of fitted stones and gravel.

Drainage ditches lined its sides, and the road was cambered to allow water to drain

off.

The Appian Way allowed Roman troops to efficiently crush their enemies.

It was expanded over the centuries.

And the Appian Way is still around!

The cement has eroded away, but you can still see many long, very straight sections.

It’s lined by trees, marked by monuments, and haunted by history.

And the Appian Way is only one of several well-preserved, two-thousand-year-old Roman

roads crisscrossing Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Metaphorically, all of these roads led to Rome.

Her citizens paid taxes toward many large-scale public works such as highways.

Perhaps the most important technology the Romans optimized was the state itself: they

developed a complicated legal system, a well-supplied army, public food assistance, and massive

public games.

One site of these games was the Flavian Amphitheater, AKA the Colosseum.

It had a retractable roof that was staffed by sailors who used complicated rigging to

move the canvas coverings around, and it was sometimes flooded to allow for naval war games.

How many engineers today know how to properly rig a giant sun-sail?

Or safely flood a public venue—without using plastic?

Thanks, Thought Bubble, but these public works were intended for Romans, not their property…

Before the industrial revolution, public works such as aqueducts, sewers, and roads required

quarrying lots of materials and lots and lots of labor.

And “labor” meant slaves.

Some estimates hold that one in three people in Roman Italy were enslaved.

These people were involved in knowledge creation, if against their will, by building and maintaining

all those great roads and other structures.

Roman slavery was a little different than plantation slavery in the American South.

Slaves could be highly educated.

Many physicians were even slaves.

They could buy their freedom and become voting citizens.

But most remained chattel—meaning property.

In 73 BCE, the gladiator Spartacus famously led a slave revolt in Italy.

The freed slaves fought the army for two years, but they were eventually defeated.

The survivors of the rebellion were crucified along the Appian Way, from Rome to Capua,

over a hundred miles to the south.

Brutal story, but worth telling in the context of Roman engineering.

Because the technologies that engineers make are, like the sciences, political—only as

good or as bad as the humans who use them.

Roman thinkers left behind written sources including histories, plays, proto-novels,

poems, legal manuals, and religious texts.

But only a few Roman texts deal with natural philosophy.

Frontius’s guide to aqueducts was one exception.

Another was the Architecture of Vitruvius.

He wrote about buildings, but also urban planning and even the plan of the human body.

By linking the limbs of the human body to mathematical principles, Vitruvius inspired

Da Vinci’s “Vitruvian man.”

Vitruvius’s Architecture sums up the concepts about knowledge common to the Hellenistic

and Greco-Roman worlds: it’s a technical manual also concerned with the beautiful harmonies

of form inherent to bodies as well as the efficient management of cities—the “body

politic.”

Next time—we’ll meet mechanical wonders and the wonder of public healthcare in the

Abbasid Caliphate’s great capital, Baghdad.

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