The Scientific Methods: Crash Course History of Science #14

Summary

This script explores the evolution of the scientific method through the contributions of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes. It discusses Galileo's astronomical observations supporting Copernicus's heliocentric model, his trial by the Inquisition, and his emphasis on experimental confirmation. Francis Bacon's practical approach to science, advocating for state-supported research to improve human well-being, is highlighted. René Descartes' philosophical inquiries into the nature of knowledge and his method of systematic doubting are also covered, illustrating how their collective work laid the groundwork for modern scientific practices.

Takeaways

• 🔬 The scientific method involves formulating hypotheses, testing them, and drawing conclusions, but there is no single historical approach to it.
• 📚 Key figures like Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes contributed to the development of the scientific method with their distinct principles and practices.
• 🌌 Galileo Galilei, known for his telescopic observations, supported the Copernican model of the universe, which positioned the Sun, not the Earth, at the center.
• 📡 The invention and improvement of the telescope by Galileo exemplified how scientific instruments can revolutionize scientific practice by expanding observational capabilities.
• 🚨 Galileo's advocacy for Copernicanism led to his trial by the Inquisition, illustrating the historical conflicts between scientific discovery and religious doctrine.
• 📖 Francis Bacon proposed a new system of natural philosophy that emphasized practical knowledge, experimentation, and state support for scientific endeavors.
• 🏛️ Bacon envisioned a structured scientific community in 'New Atlantis,' with roles for gathering facts, conducting experiments, and directing research.
• 🤔 René Descartes introduced systematic doubt as a method for establishing knowledge, questioning both sensory experience and logical reasoning for certainty.
• 📐 Descartes' work in mathematics, particularly the Cartesian coordinate system, linked algebra and geometry, providing a foundation for modern mathematical analysis.
• 🌟 The contributions of these philosophers and scientists laid the groundwork for modern science, emphasizing empirical evidence, rational inquiry, and the importance of doubt and independent confirmation.

Q & A

What is the scientific method and how has it evolved historically?

The scientific method refers to a systematic approach to investigating and acquiring knowledge about the natural world, which includes formulating hypotheses, testing them, and drawing conclusions. Historically, there isn't a single scientific method, but rather a variety of approaches that have evolved over time.

Who are the three natural philosophers credited with pioneering the abstract 'scientific method'?

Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes are the three natural philosophers credited with pioneering the abstract 'scientific method'.

What significant contributions did Galileo Galilei make to the field of astronomy?

Galileo Galilei made significant contributions to astronomy by building and refining telescopes, which allowed him to observe celestial bodies more clearly. He supported the Copernican model of the universe, which posited that the Earth was not the center of the universe.

How did Galileo's support for Copernicanism lead to conflict with the Church?

Galileo's vocal support for Copernicanism, which contradicted the Church's geocentric view, led to his trial by the Inquisition. He was eventually placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.

What was Francis Bacon's approach to science and how did it differ from the Aristotelian method?

Francis Bacon advocated for a practical approach to science that aimed to improve human wellbeing through technological advances. He rejected the Aristotelian method of using logic and instead emphasized experimentation and state support for scientific endeavors.

What was the vision of a utopian science bureaucracy that Bacon proposed in his book 'New Atlantis'?

In 'New Atlantis', Bacon proposed a vision of a utopian science bureaucracy that included a super-university called Salomon’s House, where personnel were segregated into specific roles to gather facts, conduct experiments, and direct research for the public good.

How did René Descartes contribute to the development of modern philosophy and the scientific method?

René Descartes contributed to modern philosophy and the scientific method by questioning the origins of knowledge and advocating for systematic doubting. He believed that only through reason and mathematics could one achieve certainty in knowledge.

What was Galileo's stance on the relationship between science and faith, and how did this influence his work?

Galileo believed that science and faith were not in conflict, as one represented God's word to the masses and the other represented God's work in the physical world. This stance influenced his work as he sought to uncover the laws of nature through scientific inquiry.

What was the significance of Galileo's 'Two New Sciences' and how did it reflect his approach to science?

Galileo's 'Two New Sciences' was significant because it not only presented mathematical treatises on the motion of bodies and the strength of materials but also documented his process of discovery, emphasizing the importance of independent confirmation through specific tests.

How did the scientific developments of the time, including the works of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes, impact the broader context of society and warfare?

The scientific developments of the time, including the works of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes, had a profound impact on society and warfare by advancing technology, challenging traditional beliefs, and providing new methods for understanding and controlling the natural world.

Outlines

00:00

🔬 The Roots of the Scientific Method

This paragraph introduces the idea that humans have long sought to understand the natural world through observation and testing. While today we call this process the 'scientific method,' historically, there was no single method for making knowledge. Three key figures—Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes—are credited with developing basic principles such as rationality, experimentation, and self-examination, shaping what would become the modern scientific method.

05:04

👨‍🔬 Galileo's Journey from Pisa to Fame

This section discusses Galileo Galilei's early life, from his education in various fields to his eventual focus on mathematics. He became a professor at the University of Pisa, took a job as a ballistics consultant, and later gained fame for his work on telescopes. Galileo supported the Copernican theory of heliocentrism and faced opposition from the Church, leading to his eventual conflict with the Inquisition over his scientific beliefs.

10:09

🏠 Galileo's Later Years and Lasting Legacy

After being placed under house arrest following his trial with the Inquisition, Galileo continued his scientific work. His final text, *Two New Sciences*, contributed greatly to physics and the understanding of motion. The emphasis on independent confirmation of scientific results became a critical aspect of the modern scientific method. Galileo's fearlessness and commitment to science solidified his place as a pioneer of scientific thought.

🧪 Francis Bacon and Practical Science

Francis Bacon, though controversial for personal reasons, made significant contributions to the philosophy of science. He rejected the Aristotelian approach and promoted a system where science served practical purposes, such as improving human welfare through technological advancements. Bacon proposed a vision of state-supported, centrally organized science, outlined in his utopian book *New Atlantis*, where natural philosophy would be systematically pursued for the public good.

📐 Descartes and the Foundations of Knowledge

René Descartes, a foundational figure in both mathematics and philosophy, focused on epistemology—the study of how we know what we know. He criticized the reliance on the senses and advocated for a reductionist, mathematical approach to understanding the universe. Descartes introduced the method of systematic doubt, questioning the certainty of knowledge, which remains influential in both scientific and philosophical inquiry.

⚖️ The Combined Influence of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes

The combined contributions of Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes laid the groundwork for the modern scientific method. Galileo emphasized observation and comparison of theories, Bacon focused on experimentation and societal support for science, and Descartes advocated for doubting assumptions and ensuring certainty through logic. Together, their ideas revolutionized how knowledge was pursued, setting the stage for future scientific advancements.

Keywords

💡Scientific Method

The scientific method refers to a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge through observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and drawing conclusions. In the video, it is discussed as a series of steps that have evolved over time, with no single method being universally accepted. The video emphasizes that while the scientific method is a cornerstone of modern science, its historical development was influenced by various thinkers, including Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes.

💡Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or assumption made on the basis of limited evidence, serving as a starting point for further investigation. In the context of the video, Galileo's support for Copernicus's heliocentric model is an example of a hypothesis that was tested through observation and experimentation, ultimately challenging the prevailing geocentric view.

💡Telescopes

Telescopes are optical instruments used to observe distant objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. The video highlights Galileo's improvement of the telescope, which became a pivotal scientific instrument that allowed him to make groundbreaking astronomical observations, such as the phases of Venus, supporting the heliocentric model.

💡Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance-era mathematician and astronomer known for his heliocentric model of the universe, which posited that the Sun, not the Earth, was at the center. In the video, Copernicus's ideas are central to Galileo's research and the subsequent conflict with the Church, illustrating the tension between scientific discovery and established beliefs.

💡Inquisition

The Inquisition was a group of institutions within the Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy. In the video, Galileo's support for Copernicanism led to his trial by the Inquisition, showcasing the historical challenges faced by scientists whose findings contradicted religious doctrine.

💡Rationality

Rationality refers to the ability to think, understand, and make judgments based on reason. The video mentions rationality as one of the basic principles that emerged from the work of natural philosophers like Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes, emphasizing the importance of logical reasoning in the scientific method.

💡Experimentation

Experimentation is the practice of conducting tests or observations to discover cause-and-effect relationships. The video underscores experimentation as a key component of the scientific method, with Galileo's use of the telescope and his observations of celestial bodies exemplifying how experimentation can lead to new knowledge.

💡Francis Bacon

Sir Francis Bacon was an English philosopher and statesman who is credited with developing a new approach to science that emphasized practical applications and state support. The video describes Bacon's vision for a systematic and organized approach to scientific inquiry, which contrasted with the more theoretical approaches of his time.

💡René Descartes

René Descartes was a French philosopher and mathematician who is considered a father of modern philosophy. The video discusses Descartes's contributions to the scientific method through his emphasis on doubt and the use of reason, as well as his work in mathematics, particularly the development of Cartesian coordinates.

💡Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. In the video, Descartes's work in epistemology is highlighted, particularly his method of systematic doubting, which questioned the certainty of knowledge derived from the senses and reason, leading to a foundational role for the mind in establishing truth.

💡Heliocentrism

Heliocentrism is the astronomical model that places the Sun at the center of the universe with the planets, including Earth, orbiting around it. The video discusses Galileo's advocacy for heliocentrism, which was a significant departure from the then-dominant geocentric model and led to his conflict with the Church.

Highlights

The scientific method involves creating a hypothesis, testing it, and drawing conclusions.

Historically, there isn't one single scientific method, but multiple ways to make knowledge.

Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes are three natural philosophers who shaped the modern concept of the scientific method.

Galileo Galilei was a mathematician who made significant contributions to astronomy and physics.

Galileo's improved telescopes changed the nature of scientific practice in astronomy.

Galileo supported Copernicus's heliocentric model, which was controversial at the time.

Galileo's letter to the Grand Duchess Christina argued that science and religion do not conflict.

The Church's opposition to Galileo's views led to his trial and house arrest.

Galileo's 'Two New Sciences' emphasized the importance of independent confirmation in science.

Francis Bacon advocated for a practical approach to science, focused on improving human wellbeing.

Bacon's vision included a state-supported system for scientific research and development.

René Descartes contributed to the scientific method through his emphasis on doubt and reason.

Descartes' 'Discourse on Method' challenged traditional knowledge and emphasized the importance of doubt.

The combination of Galileo's, Bacon's, and Descartes's ideas contributed to the development of the scientific method.

The scientific method's development was also influenced by practical needs such as winning wars and exploring new territories.

Crash Course History of Science explores the impact of the scientific method on various fields, including medicine.

Transcripts

I started this course by saying that people have made knowledge about the natural world,

pretty much forever.

They’ve done this by carefully observing the world and then devising tests to find

out if their ideas are true.

Today, we refer to a specific series of steps—coming up with a hypothesis, testing it, and drawing

conclusions—as the scientific method.

But, historically speaking, there is no one scientific method.

There’s more than one way to make knowledge.

Still, if you look at some of the great minds who helped shape today’s concept of the

scientific method, a set of basic principles starts to emerge.

Like rationality.

Experimentation.

And ruthless self-examination.

For these ideas and a lot of other stuff, we have to thank three of the natural philosophers who

pioneered this abstract “scientific method”: Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes.

[INTRO MUSIC PLAYS}

Galileo, Bacon, and Descartes are each so

fascinating that they could each have their own episode.

But one reason to talk about them together is that they lived at roughly the same time.

A lot changed in European natural philosophy between the mid-1500s and the mid-1600s, when

Newton started dropping his hits.

We’ll get there later!

But first, Dr. Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa in 1564.

He considered becoming a priest, studied art, attended school for medicine, but then attended

a lecture on geometry, and went on to study math in secret, because his dad wanted him

to focus on medicine.

Much to his father’s chagrin, I’m sure, Galileo became a professor of a bunch of math-related

stuff at University of Pisa, a lowly, poorly paid position.

In 1593, Galileo took a job as a ballistics consultant at the Arsenal of Venice, which

is a heck of a title to have on your C.V.

Then, starting in 1609, he built and refined telescopes, which eventually made him famous.

The very first telescope was invented by Dutch spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey in Holland

in 1608.

But Galileo’s versions were much better.

And telescopes are a good example of how scientific instruments change the nature of scientific

practice.

We often design experiments around how we can use our instruments—in the case of astronomy,

around what we can see through a telescope.

With his new telescopic success, Galileo quit his job at Pisa for a much better one at Padua,

and he also took on the role of Chief Mathematician and Philosopher of Florence.

I love this guy's resume!!!

As he continued to research the night sky, Galileo became convinced that Copernicus was

right: the earth is not the center of the universe.

He also looked into Kepler’s ideas but wasn’t convinced by them.

By 1611, Galileo’s name had been brought up by the Inquisition.

And, of course, nobody expects that.

But it seems that his vocal support of Copernicanism was creating some friction in the Florentine

court.

Among many others, the Grand Duchess Christina, who was basically one of his patrons, said

she took issue with the idea of heliocentrism.

So in 1615, he wrote to a letter to explaining that the Bible and nature did not disagree:

One was God’s word to the masses—a story about how to behave and why.

The other was God’s work—the physical reality that He created.

So science, he said, was simply the uncovering of God’s work.

Galileo was a man of faith!

Unfortunately for him, Church officials didn’t like this explanation.

In 1616, the Church added Copernicus’ text, De rev, to its official list of banned books.

The Inquisitors deemed heliocentrism “foolish and absurd in philosophy.”

This was bad news for Galileo: he was told not to uphold or defend Copernicanism.

(But he may have been able to teach a heliocentric astronomy as a thought experiment.

Historians aren’t sure.)

But Galileo wasn’t having any of it.

In 1623, Galileo published a pamphlet called the Assayer that basically said scientists

should be free to do their work.

Pope Urban VIII, Galileo’s personal friend, was a fan.

He said that God could move the heavens in numberless ways, so the ultimate source of

truth would always be faith.

So sure, Galileo, you want to spend your nights staring at tiny dots of light?

Knock yourself out.

Urban even renamed Galileo’s next book, Dialogue on the the Two Chief World Systems

of 1632.

All Urban asked was for his friend to treat different astronomical systems fairly.

But…

Galileo picked a fight.

The Dialogue made a clear argument for Copernicanism, comparing it point by point with the Aristotelian–Ptolemaic

system.

He brought new data to the battle: he described the phases of Venus, which appears to grow

larger and smaller like earth’s moon.

This phasing did not fit with a geocentric model.

An even stronger argument came from the tides, whose movements seemed to prove that the earth

moves.

And the pope was not happy.

Urban felt that Galileo had not heard his warning.

All copies of the Dialogue were recalled.

And in 1632, Galileo was called to Rome to speak to the Inquisition.

His trial got under way in 1633, and in time, he was placed under house arrest for the rest

of his life.

Amazingly, Galileo didn’t give up.

Humiliated, under arrest, he kept sciencing.

Beyond his contributions to astronomy, physics, and the scientific method, Galileo is a rockstar

thanks to his fearlessness.

Galileo’s last text was also perhaps his most relevant to the idea of methods in science:

His Two New Sciences of 1638 was a mathematical treatise about how bodies fall through the

air, and how wooden beams break.

It was also a record of the process by which he discovered these physical laws.

He called for specific tests that would let experimenters confirm his laws with their

own senses.

This, in his words, was the mark of a “true scientist”: independent confirmation.

This is an awesome norm to try to live up to!

So, we shouldn’t be surprised that a lifelong nerd like Galileo would have played a critical

role in developing better methods of doing science.

But Francis Bacon, born in London in 1561, is more of a historical surprise.

For one, he was cast out of public office for taking bribes.

Two, some people for some reason think he was Shakespeare.

And I mean, if you’ve ever read these two writers… there’s a clear difference.

And most of Bacon’s impact on science was posthumous.

We can basically boil it to down to a new approach to science, which was practical,

instrumental, and supported by the state.

Bacon wanted to create a whole replacement system of natural philosophy—that meant

philosophy, mathematics, physics, biology, all wrapped up together.

He rejected the Aristotelian way of doing science—arguing rationally using logic.

Instead, he believed that natural philosophers should help improve the wellbeing of humanity

through technological advances.

Bacon expressed this within a Christian framework, casting Aristotle’s philosophy as a dereliction

of the Christian duty of charity toward others.

Improving wellbeing meant understanding and controlling the chaos of the natural.

Bacon described nature as female and passive, and humanity as male and active.

So, science was supposed to be a masculine activity: it allowed humans to exploit nature.

Now, this metaphor has not aged well at all, and not just because it was sexist and horrible.

We also now have plenty of examples of all the ways that humans simply can’t control

nature.

And yet this metaphor is, sadly, still very much alive.

So.

What did Bacon’s new system of natural philosophy look like up close?

Help us out, ThoughtBubble:

For Bacon, control over nature meant deriving useful arts—or technē—like gunpowder,

silk, and the printing press, from basic knowledge.

And how were Baconians supposed to make useful knowledge?

They needed first-hand experiences.

This meant testing answers to important questions, without relying on the words of long-dead

Greek and Arabic philosophers.

For Bacon, science also required central planning and state support.

Natural philosophy should not be the domain of a few random nobles, he thought.

It should be a program, or system, that worked for the public good.

He outlined a vision of a utopian science bureaucracy in his book called New Atlantis,

published in 1626.

Bacon proposed creating a hub for intellectual work, a kind of super-university called Salomon’s

House.

Here, the personnel—all male, of course—would be strictly segregated into specific roles.

Some would travel the world to gather facts.

Others would conduct experiments to generate new facts.

Yet others would extract potential facts from books—but these proto-facts would have to

be tested experimentally.

Further up the hierarchy, others would analyze all of the different natural facts and experimental

outcomes and direct the next round of research.

And at the very top were the Interpreters of Nature—three men who would take all facts

and use them to produce axioms.

Working along with them were “dowry men” who drew conclusions from these axioms to

yield specific practical benefits.

That, in a nutshell, is the scientific world according to Bacon.

Thanks Thought Bubble, Now, another thinker who advocated for a practical

science was René Descartes.

Born in central France in 1596, Descartes lived mostly in the Netherlands.

He’s known as a founding figure in mathematics and modern philosophy.

So, that's not bad.

In math, he’s known as the dude who bridged geometry and algebra.

We call the numbered X–Y axes the plane of “Cartesian” coordinates.

You can map a lot of math with this system.

Now, Descartes knew what had happened to Galileo, and his publishers in France didn’t want

to wind up on trial, too.

So Descartes stopped publication of his own Copernican book, Le monde or The World, in

1633.

But he did come up with a whole new cosmology, based on Copernicus, that featured a chaotic,

rapidly moving ætherial fluid in which the planets and stars were suspended—instead

of perfect crystalline spheres.

His Discourse on Method, published in 1637, was his major contribution to the history

of making knowledge.

But, more than Galileo—a practicing experimentalist—or Bacon—a statesman thinking about the practical

uses of natural philosophy—Descartes was a pure philosopher.

He started at the very beginning with an abstract question: how we know what we know?

This is question at the heart of the philosophical discipline of epistemology, which Descartes

redefined.

Philosophers today are still debating some of the questions Descartes raised about the

origins of knowledge.

Descartes wanted to replace Aristotle as the king of philosophy.

And Descartes’s attack on Aristotle boiled down to two arguments: one, knowledge obtained

through the senses lacks absolute certainty, because the senses often deceive us.

And two, human reason can also be deceived!

Logical conclusions from false premises will lead you to the wrong answers.

So Descartes was like, welp, time to formulate a whole new philosophy to address these points.

Ultimately, to be certain of the truth, Descartes could only count on one thing: his mind.

So he described the world reductionistically, meaning using math to represent physical phenomena.

Only math, which is either right or wrong, could found a total system of natural philosophy.

For Descartes, the universe is composed only of things that math can describe.

He thought that philosophers should be able to provide causal explanations for all observed

phenomena, showing the or the mechanical principles behind the things that happen in

the universe.

And the tactic Descartes used for checking the validity of your own knowledge is famous

and still useful today: systematic doubting.

When in doubt, doubt yourself!

This pairs nicely with what Bacon argued: don’t trust old books; check!

When you add Galileo’s focus on independent, rational comparison of theories about natural

phenomena to Bacon’s focus on experiment and social norms promoting scientific research,

and then Descartes’s reminder to always ask yourself how sure you are that you know

stuff, you get a kind of method or system.

Was it thought of as a single philosophy at the time?

Sort of.

Some of the most important members of the early Royal Society, where we’ll head in

a couple of episodes, pointed explicitly to Bacon as an inspiration.

But this story isn’t all all about better descriptions of the Solar System.

It’s also about winning wars and conquering new territory.

Stay tuned.

Next time—we’ll look at how the “new science” affected the healing arts and beliefs

about the human form… and, yes, there will be dissections.

A lot of dissections!

Crash Course History of Science is filmed in the Dr. Cheryl C. Kinney studio in Missoula,

Montana and it’s made with the help of all this nice people and our animation team is

Thought Cafe.

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