Syntax (Part 1)

Summary

In this linguistics video, the focus is on syntax, which is crucial for understanding how words are combined into phrases and sentences. The presenter introduces the concept using Chomsky's famous sentence to illustrate that syntax can create well-formed sentences that may not make semantic sense. The video delves into lexical categories, phrase structure rules, and the creation of tree diagrams. It explains parts of speech, the role of determiners, and adpositions, emphasizing their importance in language structure. The rules for English syntax are outlined, highlighting the flexibility of adverb placement and the composition of noun and verb phrases.

Takeaways

• 📚 Syntax is the study of how words are ordered to form phrases and sentences, a crucial aspect of human language.
• 🌳 Tree structures are essential tools in linguistics for representing the hierarchical organization of words in phrases and sentences.
• 🔍 The famous sentence 'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously' demonstrates that syntax can create well-formed sentences that may not make semantic sense.
• 📖 Lexical categories, or parts of speech, are fundamental for understanding syntax and include nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, and adpositions.
• 🏛 Noun phrases (NP) are composed of determiners, adjectives, nouns, and can optionally include prepositional phrases.
• 🏃 Verb phrases (VP) minimally consist of a verb and can include noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and adverbs.
• 🔄 Phrase structure rules vary across languages, dictating how lexical categories combine and the order in which they appear to form sentences.
• 🔢 The notation 'S --> NP VP' represents the basic structure of an English sentence, where 'S' stands for sentence, 'NP' for noun phrase, and 'VP' for verb phrase.
• 📝 Adverbs can modify verbs and have flexible positions in English sentences, often occurring before or after the verb.
• 🌐 Adpositions, which include prepositions and postpositions, indicate direction or location and can differ in their placement relative to the object in various languages.

Q & A

What is the main focus of this week's linguistics video?

The main focus of this week's linguistics video is syntax, which is the study of the ordering of components in phrases and sentences.

Why is syntax considered important in the study of language?

Syntax is considered important because it allows us to combine words into phrases and sentences in unique ways, which is a distinctive feature of human language.

What is the significance of the sentence 'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously' in the context of syntax?

The sentence 'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously' is significant because, despite its nonsensical meaning, it is a well-formed sentence in English syntactically, illustrating the importance of syntax even when semantics do not make sense.

What are the three main topics that will be discussed in the video?

The three main topics to be discussed in the video are lexical categories (parts of speech), phrase structure rules, and how to draw tree structures or tree diagrams.

What is the difference between lexical categories and parts of speech?

Lexical categories and parts of speech refer to the same concept, but 'lexical category' is a more technical term used by linguists, whereas 'parts of speech' is a phrase likely remembered from English class.

What is a noun phrase (NP) and what can it consist of?

A noun phrase (NP) consists of a noun, and can optionally include determiners, adjectives, and a prepositional phrase. It can be as simple as a single noun or more complex with additional elements.

How are determiners different from articles, and what is the broader category they both belong to?

Determiners are a broader category that includes articles ('a', 'an', 'the'), possessive pronouns, demonstratives, and quantifiers. Articles are a subset of determiners.

What is an adposition and what are its two main types?

An adposition is a word that indicates a spatial or temporal relationship and includes prepositions (which precede the object) and postpositions (which follow the object).

What does the phrase structure rule 'S --> NP VP' mean in the context of English grammar?

The phrase structure rule 'S --> NP VP' means that a sentence (S) in English consists of a noun phrase (NP) followed by a verb phrase (VP), which is the basic structure for forming well-formed sentences.

How do prepositional phrases differ from noun phrases and what is their basic structure?

Prepositional phrases differ from noun phrases by including a preposition that precedes a noun phrase. The basic structure is a preposition followed by a noun phrase, such as 'to the house' or 'near the mountain'.

What is the minimal structure of a verb phrase (VP) in English according to the video?

The minimal structure of a verb phrase (VP) in English is a verb, but it can also include an optional noun phrase, a prepositional phrase, and an adverb.

Outlines

00:00

📚 Introduction to Syntax and Lexical Categories

The paragraph introduces the topic of syntax, which is the study of how words are arranged to form phrases and sentences. It emphasizes the uniqueness of human language in its syntactic flexibility. The script mentions the famous sentence 'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously' by Noam Chomsky to illustrate that syntax can create well-formed sentences that may not make semantic sense. The focus of this section is on lexical categories, also known as parts of speech, which are crucial for understanding syntax. The paragraph reviews various lexical categories including nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, and adpositions, providing examples and explanations for each.

05:03

🌐 Exploring Phrase Structure Rules and Adpositions

This paragraph delves into phrase structure rules, which dictate how words combine to form sentences in different languages. It explains that while many languages share common lexical categories, it is the phrase structure rules that make each language unique. The paragraph outlines the basic phrase structure rules for English, using the notation 'S --> NP VP' to indicate that a sentence (S) is composed of a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). It further breaks down the components of noun phrases and verb phrases, including optional elements like determiners, adjectives, and prepositional phrases. The concept of adpositions, which include prepositions and postpositions, is also discussed, highlighting how they relate to the structure of phrases in a sentence.

Keywords

💡Syntax

Syntax refers to the study of the ordering of components in phrases and sentences. It is a central field in linguistics because it governs how words are combined to form phrases and sentences in unique ways, which is a distinctive feature of human language. In the video, syntax is the main theme, and the discussion revolves around how syntax allows for the creation of well-formed sentences even if they may not make semantic sense, as illustrated by the famous Chomsky sentence 'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.'

💡Tree Structures

Tree structures are graphical representations used by linguists to depict the hierarchical organization of words into phrases and sentences. They are essential for understanding syntax as they show the structural relationships between different parts of a sentence. The video emphasizes the importance of tree structures in analyzing language and how they help to represent the syntactic rules that govern sentence formation.

💡Lexical Categories

Lexical categories, also known as parts of speech, are the different types of words that make up a language. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, determiners, and adpositions. Understanding lexical categories is fundamental to syntax because they dictate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences. The video script discusses these categories in detail to provide a foundation for understanding phrase structure rules and tree diagrams.

💡Phrase Structure Rules

Phrase structure rules are the grammatical principles that dictate how lexical categories can be combined to form phrases and sentences. These rules vary across languages and define the acceptable order of words. In the video, the phrase structure rules for English are introduced, such as 'S --> NP VP', which indicates that a sentence (S) is composed of a noun phrase (NP) followed by a verb phrase (VP). These rules are crucial for understanding how different languages structure their sentences.

💡Noun Phrase (NP)

A noun phrase is a group of words that functions as a noun in a sentence, typically headed by a noun and optionally including determiners, adjectives, and prepositional phrases. In the context of the video, noun phrases are central to understanding syntax because they are one of the primary building blocks of sentences. The script explains that a noun phrase can be as simple as a single noun or as complex as a phrase with multiple modifiers.

💡Verb Phrase (VP)

A verb phrase is a group of words that includes a verb and may also contain noun phrases, prepositional phrases, and adverbs. Verb phrases are essential in syntax as they express actions or states and are a key component of sentence structure. The video script discusses how verb phrases are formed and how they interact with noun phrases to create well-formed sentences.

💡Determiners

Determiners are words that introduce noun phrases and provide information about the noun, such as specificity or quantity. In the video, determiners are highlighted as an important lexical category that includes articles (a, an, the), possessive pronouns (his, her, your), demonstratives (this, that), and quantifiers (one, some, many). Understanding determiners is crucial for analyzing noun phrases and their role in sentence structure.

💡Adpositions

Adpositions are a lexical category that includes prepositions and postpositions, which indicate the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence, often expressing spatial or temporal relations. In the video, adpositions are discussed to explain how they function in English and other languages, with a focus on how they precede or follow the noun phrases they relate to.

💡Ambiguity

Ambiguity in syntax refers to the existence of multiple possible interpretations of a sentence due to its structure. The video touches on the concept of ambiguity in the context of tree structures, where different syntactic representations can lead to different meanings. Understanding ambiguity is important for analyzing complex sentences and interpreting language accurately.

💡Mnemonic Device

A mnemonic device is a learning technique that aids in memory retention, often through the use of patterns or associations. In the video, the script suggests using the word 'adverb', which contains 'verb', as a mnemonic to remember that adverbs describe verbs, similar to how adjectives describe nouns. This technique is used to help viewers remember the functions of different lexical categories in syntax.

Highlights

Introduction to the study of syntax in linguistics.

Syntax allows for the unique combination of words into phrases and sentences.

Focus on tree structures as a tool for representing language structure.

The famous Chomsky sentence 'Colorless green ideas sleep furiously' to illustrate syntax.

Explanation of the well-formedness of the Chomsky sentence in English syntax.

Introduction to the three main topics: lexical categories, phrase structure rules, and tree structures.

Definition and importance of lexical categories in syntax.

Explanation of nouns as subjects in English sentences.

Role of adjectives in modifying nouns.

Function of verbs as indicators of action or event in a sentence.

Adverbs' relationship with verbs and their typical '-ly' ending in English.

Distinction between pronouns and nouns in English grammar.

Clarification of the terms 'articles' and 'determiners' and their usage.

Introduction to adpositions, including prepositions and their role in indicating direction or location.

Phrase structure rules as a way to distinguish language differences.

Explanation of the phrase structure rule 'S --> NP VP' for English sentences.

Breakdown of the components of a noun phrase (NP) in English syntax.

Role of prepositional phrases (PP) in noun phrases.

Components of a verb phrase (VP) and the optional elements that can follow a verb.

Note on the flexibility of adverb placement in English sentences.

Transcripts

Hello, everybody! W elcome back! Good to see you all again... even though I can't see you.

Anyway, so we're going to be tackling a new subject in linguistics this week, and this week it is syntax!

"Syntax" is the study of the ordering of components in phrases and sentences.

For many linguists, syntax is one of the most important fields of study because it is syntax that allows us to combine words into phrases and sentences in unique ways,

and that's something that's pretty darn unique about human language.

So just like in the last video, we couldn't talk about everything in phonology, just like we can't talk about everything in syntax,

but we're going to focus in on tree structures today.

These are a really valuable thing that linguists use to structurally represent what's going on in a language.

How do they organize words into phrases and sentences? And languages differ in these rules in that respect.

So, first, you might be looking at this phrase wondering, "what does this mean?"

"Colorless green ideas sleep furiously."

This is a really famous sentence that was coined by Noam Chomsky basically to illustrate the importance of syntax.

So you might look at this and immediately recognize that there's something wrong--it doesn't make any sense, or very little sense.

But there's also something right about it--it's a perfectly well-formed sentence in English syntactically.

That is, you have two adjectives ("colorless" and "green") preceding a noun ("ideas"), which precede the verb, "sleep",

and then you have an adverb ("furiously") coming after it.

So all of those elements are in the right order; it's a perfectly well-formed sentence,

and it therefore illustrates that syntax is a real thing even if it (this sentence) doesn't make sense semantically.

So in this video, we're going to be talking about three things.

(1) We're going to talk about "lexical categories", otherwise known as "parts of speech",

which will be important for understanding (2) "phrase structure rules", which, in turn, will be important for understanding (3) how to draw "tree structures" or "tree diagrams".

Alright, so, first, let's talk about "lexical categories", which is really just a fancy way of saying "parts of speech".

But get in the habit of saying "lexical category";

I think it makes a little bit more sense than "parts of speech", which is a phrase you probably remember from English class.

Anyway, when we're talking about drawing tree structures, it's really important to know these lexical categories,

and you probably know most, if not all, of them.

But, anyway, let's just briefly review what they are.

So, a "noun", typically, is some sort of person, place or thing.

As a subject in English they're nouns (most of the time)--they pretty much have to be nouns.

So (for example), "cat", "house", "swimming pool"--person, place, or thing.

"Adjectives" are always going with nouns because adjectives describe, or modify, nouns: "red", "big", "huge"... that sort of thing.

"Verbs" are the action in a sentence, so it's denoting some sort of action or event.

So (for example), "swim", "live", "is"--those are all instances of verbs.

"Adverbs" go with verbs, just like adjectives always go with nouns,

and it's easy to forget that, but "adverb" has the word "verb" in it,

so use that a mnemonic device to remember that adverbs are always describing verbs, just like adjectives are always describing nouns.

In English, you almost always know that you're dealing with an adverb because most of the time the word will end in "-ly".

There are some exceptions, though, like "friendly" or "ugly"--those are actually adjectives because they always describe nouns.

But things like "quickly", "slowly" --those describe verbs, and as such, we would want to call them adverbs.

"Pronouns" are very similar to nouns; they behave almost the same exact way as nouns in English,

but I'm treating them as two different things just to get you used to this technical difference between the two.

So "pronouns" are always kind of pointing to someone or something like "you", "he", "she", "it"... so it's representing a person or a thing.

"Determiner" is the next one, and I want to call your attention to this one because your book (may not) cover determiners;

it (probably) just mentions "articles"--"a", "an", or "the".

Articles and determiners, in this class, you can pretty much use them interchangeably because we're not going into any great detail with either one of them,

but technically, there is a difference.

"Articles" are part of a bigger category called "determiners".

Determiners also include things like "possessive pronouns" like "his", "her", "your";

"demonstratives" like "this", "that", "these", "those";

"quantifiers" like "one", "some", "many"... that sort of thing.

So maybe get used to the distinction between articles and determiners, but in this class you can use the two interchangeably--it's totally fine.

This last one maybe you've never heard before; it's called an "adposition".

It includes something that you've definitely heard before, a "preposition".

A preposition is sort of asserting the trajectory toward something, like "to" in "to the house" or "from" as in "from the pool",

"near" as in "near the mountain", so it has something to do in English with the direction or location of something.

But what makes those prepositions in English is that they precede that object complement--

they always go before it, hence "preposition" (pre-position), but some languages do the opposite; they do what's called "postpositions",

like Japanese, Turkish, or Quechua; they use not prepositions but postpositions, so the thing comes after the object or complement.

And both of those together--prepositions and postpositions--are part of a bigger category: adpositions.

Knowing these is going to be really important in order to draw accurate tree diagrams.

Alright, so now let's talk about "phrase structure rules".

This is where we can start to see how languages distinguish themselves from one another,

because while a lot of different languages have nouns and verbs and adjectives and adverbs,

It's the phrase structure rules that basically tell you how you can combine those elements

and which orders are acceptable to form sentences in that language.

So here we have phrase structure rules, but keep in mind that these are the phrase structure rules for English.

So let me just break down what this code means.

So, the first one is "S --> NP VP".

That basically is shorthand that linguists use to say that a "S", or a sentence, consists of a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP).

You have to have both the noun phrase followed by the verb phrase in that order in English to have a well-formed, acceptable sentence.

"So what goes into a noun phrase?", you may ask.

Well, a noun phrase consists of a noun, minimally--you have to have a noun.

You could have a noun phrase that is actually just one word.

I know it sounds weird that a whole phrase could consist of just word, but that's technically true.

However, you'll notice that these parentheses are around things like "determiners" ("Det"), "adjectives" ("Adj"),

and a "prepositional phrase ("PP") that we'll get to in a second.

The parentheses mean that they are optional; you don't need them but you very often get them in noun phrases.

So you could have something like just "house"--that could be a noun phrase,

but it could also be something like "the (Det) red (Adj) house (N)" or "the (Det) red (Adj) house (N) on the corner (PP)" as a prepositional phrase.

So a "prepositional phrase" then: you have to have a preposition and a noun phrase.

So, again, that preposition--"to", "near", "by", "across", "from"----those are all examples of prepositions in English,

but they always come with some sort of noun phrase, so (for example) "near the pool", "by the mountain".

"The pool", "the mountain"--those are examples of noun phrases in English.

And then a "VP"--a "verb phrase"--minimally consists of a verb.

You could have a verb phrase that is just one word--just a verb--and that's fine, but very often in English you get more than that.

You get optionally a noun phrase followed by a prepositional phrase, and you very often get an "adverb".

Now, note that I've put an "adverb" over here, but it could very often precede the verb in English,

like "he quickly ran" or "he ran quickly". Either one is totally fine; English allows a lot of freedom of movement for adverbs.

So just note also that these phrase structure rules (might look) a little bit different in your textbook.

This is a little but more technically correct because it will allow us to talk about ambiguity in tree structures in just a moment.

So I'd invite you to remember these (and the ones in Yule's The Study of Language textbook),

but these are a little bit more specific, so just a note to keep track of those.