Ancient Greek medicine | Wikipedia audio article

Summary

This script delves into the multifaceted nature of ancient Greek medicine, highlighting its spiritual and physical aspects, the humoral theory, and the influence of figures like Hippocrates and Galen. It explores the evolution from divine punishment to cause-and-effect understanding, the role of the Asclepieia in healing, and the transition to empirical observation in medicine. The script also touches on the contributions of Aristotle, Herophilus, Erasistratus, and Dioscorides, and the historical legacy of Greek medicine in shaping Western medical practices.

Takeaways

• 📚 Ancient Greek medicine was a blend of theories and practices that evolved over time, integrating both spiritual and physical aspects of health.
• 🌡 The concept of 'humors' played a central role in Greek medicine, with health believed to be influenced by a balance of blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile.
• 🏛 Early Greek beliefs considered illness as 'divine punishment', but this view shifted towards a more physical, cause-and-effect understanding of diseases.
• 🧙‍♂️ Hippocrates, known as the 'Father of Modern Medicine', established a medical school and contributed significantly to the field with the Hippocratic Corpus and the Hippocratic Oath.
• 🏥 The first Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC, marking the beginning of systematic medical education and patient observation.
• ⛲️ Asclepieia, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, served as early medical centers where patients received dreams for diagnosis and treatment.
• 💉 The Rod of Asclepius and the Caduceus are often confused; the former symbolizes medicine with a single snake, while the latter, associated with Hermes, features two snakes and wings.
• 🔍 The Hippocratic Corpus advocated for biological explanations of disease over supernatural ones, focusing on environmental factors and patient compliance.
• 🤔 Ancient Greek physicians recognized the mind's role in healing, suggesting that the patient's mindset could be fundamental to their illness or recovery.
• 🌿 Dioscorides' De Materia Medica was an influential text on medicinal substances, forming the basis of Western pharmacopeia for centuries.
• 🔄 The legacy of Greek medicine persisted through Roman conquest, Arab scholarship, and the Renaissance, with practices like bloodletting continuing into the 19th century.

Q & A

What was the initial belief of ancient Greeks regarding the cause of illnesses?

Initially, ancient Greeks believed that illnesses were 'divine punishments' and healing was a 'gift from the Gods'.

How did the ancient Greeks' view on the causes of diseases evolve over time?

Their view evolved from pure spiritual beliefs to a more physical, cause-and-effect based foundation as theories were tested against symptoms and results.

What are the four humors in the humoral theory of ancient Greek medicine?

The four humors are blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile, which were believed to affect health when not in balance.

Who is known as the 'Father of Modern Medicine' and what is his major contribution?

Hippocrates is known as the 'Father of Modern Medicine'. He established a medical school at Cos, documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus, and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians.

How did geographic location and social class influence health according to ancient Greek medicine?

Geographic location and social class affected living conditions and could subject people to different environmental issues such as pests and availability of clean water, impacting their health.

What role did the patient's mindset play in the diagnosis and treatment in ancient Greek medicine?

The patient's mindset was considered significant in healing or could be the sole basis for the illness, emphasizing the connection between the mind and physical health.

What was the significance of the Asclepieia in ancient Greek medicine?

Asclepieia were temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius that functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing, where patients received guidance or treatment through induced sleep states.

What is the difference between the Rod of Asclepius and the Caduceus?

The Rod of Asclepius has one snake without wings and is a symbol for medicine, while the Caduceus has two snakes with wings and was a staff wielded by the god Hermes, symbolizing swiftness.

What was the main focus of the Hippocratic Corpus in terms of disease treatment?

The Hippocratic Corpus focused on biologically based approaches to disease, emphasizing the balance of humors in the body and rejecting magical intervention.

How did Herophilus and Erasistratus contribute to the understanding of human anatomy and physiology?

Herophilus and Erasistratus conducted experiments on live criminals, distinguishing between veins and arteries, and mapping the courses of veins and nerves across the body, contributing to the understanding of the nervous system and motion.

What was the impact of Galen's work on the development of Western medical science?

Galen's work influenced the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, and pharmacology, and his theories dominated Western medical science for over 1,300 years.

How did Dioscorides' De Materia Medica impact the field of pharmacology?

De Materia Medica described the uses and actions of about 600 medicinal substances based on empirical observation, forming the basis for the Western pharmacopeia through the 19th century and influencing European herbal medicine.

Outlines

00:00

🌿 Ancient Greek Medicine and Humoral Theory

The first paragraph delves into the multifaceted nature of Ancient Greek medicine, which integrated spiritual and physical aspects. It highlights the belief in the influence of humors—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile—on health, along with other factors like geography, social status, diet, and mindset. The transition from viewing illnesses as divine punishments to a cause-and-effect approach is noted. Hippocrates, the 'Father of Modern Medicine,' is credited with establishing the humoral theory and the Hippocratic Oath, which continues to be relevant. The paragraph also touches on the contributions of Greek medicine to later Islamic and medieval European practices and the early medical school in Cnidus, where observation of patients began.

05:03

🛕 Asclepieia and the Role of Religion in Healing

This paragraph explores the religious and spiritual aspects of Ancient Greek healing, focusing on the Asclepieia, temples dedicated to the god Asclepius. These temples served as medical advice centers and healing institutions where patients underwent 'enkoimesis,' a dream-like state that could involve divine guidance or surgical treatment. The Temple of Asclepius in Pergamum, with its medicinal spring, and the use of home remedies like chamomile and peppermint tea are mentioned. The paragraph also discusses the interpretation of dreams and the practice of using dogs to lick wounds, as well as the historical records of cures inscribed on marble boards at the Asclepieion of Epidaurus.

10:06

🧙‍♂️ Ancient Greek Physicians and the Evolution of Medical Thought

The third paragraph examines the transition of Ancient Greek physicians' view on disease from supernatural origins to biological causation. It discusses the Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical works that advocated for biological approaches over magical interventions. The treatise 'Sacred Disease' is highlighted for its argument against supernatural causes of disease. The paragraph also covers the humoral theory's focus on balancing bodily fluids, the importance of the environment in disease causation, and the role of the patient in their treatment. The influence of Aristotle's biological writings and his emphasis on empiricism and the diversity of life are also mentioned.

15:09

🧬 Pioneers of Medical Research: Herophilus and Erasistratus

This paragraph introduces Herophilus and Erasistratus, two significant figures in the advancement of medical knowledge during the Hellenistic period. Herophilus is noted for associating intelligence with the brain and distinguishing between veins and arteries. Both researchers contributed to the understanding of the nervous system and its role in motion and sensation. Their experiments, including vivisections on criminals, provided insights into the structure and function of the human body, challenging the prevailing teleological viewpoint of the time.

20:14

📚 Legacy and Influence of Ancient Greek Medicine

The final paragraph discusses the historical legacy of Ancient Greek medicine, from its adoption by the Romans to its influence on Islamic and medieval European medicine. It emphasizes the works of Galen and Dioscorides, which were translated and expanded upon by scholars in the Arab world. The paragraph also notes the resurgence of interest in Hippocratic and Galenic texts during the Renaissance and the eventual shift towards scientific experimental methods in the 16th and 17th centuries. The practice of bloodletting, a remnant of Hippocratic-Galenic medicine, is mentioned as persisting into the 19th century.

Keywords

💡Ancient Greek medicine

Ancient Greek medicine refers to the medical theories and practices developed in ancient Greece, which integrated spiritual and physical aspects of health. It is central to the video's theme, showcasing the evolution from spiritual beliefs to a cause-and-effect foundation in medicine. The script discusses its early beliefs, the humoral theory, and the contributions of figures like Hippocrates, emphasizing its historical significance and influence on later medical practices.

💡Humors

The concept of 'humors' in the script refers to the ancient Greek theory of four bodily fluids—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile—that were believed to influence health when in balance or cause illness when imbalanced. This theory is a key element in the video, illustrating the early attempts to understand the body's functions and the transition from supernatural to biological explanations for health and disease.

💡Hippocrates

Hippocrates, known as the 'Father of Modern Medicine,' is a pivotal figure mentioned in the script. His contributions to ancient Greek medicine, such as the establishment of the medical school in Cos, the Hippocratic Corpus, and the Hippocratic Oath, are highlighted to demonstrate the video's focus on the development of medical ethics and the scientific approach to medicine.

💡Asclepieia

Asclepieia, as described in the script, were temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius and served as centers for medical advice and healing in ancient Greece. They represent the spiritual aspect of ancient Greek medicine, where patients would undergo 'enkoimesis' or induced sleep for healing, indicating the video's exploration of the intertwining of religion and medicine in antiquity.

💡Hippocratic Corpus

The 'Hippocratic Corpus' is a collection of medical works associated with Hippocrates and his students, as mentioned in the script. It signifies the transition from magical to biological approaches to disease and is an important part of the video's narrative on the evolution of medical knowledge and practices in ancient Greece.

💡Aristotle

Aristotle, an influential philosopher and scholar mentioned in the script, contributed to the understanding of the living world with his biological writings and emphasis on empiricism and biological causation. His ideas, such as the scala naturae and the division of souls, impacted the video's theme by shaping Greek perception and the study of medicine.

💡Herophilus and Erasistratus

Herophilus and Erasistratus, as noted in the script, were medical researchers in the Alexandrian era who made significant contributions to anatomy and physiology. Their work on the nervous system, veins, and arteries exemplifies the video's theme of advancing medical knowledge through observation and experimentation.

💡Galen

Galen, a prominent Greek physician in the Roman Empire, is highlighted in the script for his extensive influence on various scientific disciplines, including anatomy and physiology. His theories, based on humorism, dominated Western medical science for centuries, underscoring the video's exploration of the enduring impact of ancient Greek medical thought.

💡Dioscorides

Dioscorides, a Greek physician and pharmacologist, is recognized in the script for his work 'De Materia Medica,' an encyclopedia of medicinal substances. His empirical approach to medicine and the lasting influence of his work on Western pharmacopeia are relevant to the video's theme of the practical application of medical knowledge.

💡Hippocratic-Galenic tradition

The 'Hippocratic-Galenic tradition' mentioned in the script refers to the combined medical knowledge and practices derived from Hippocrates and Galen. It signifies the continuity and spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, illustrating the video's focus on the historical legacy and dissemination of medical ideas.

💡Renaissance

The 'Renaissance' is a period in history that is mentioned in the script as a time when there was a resurgence of interest in classical learning, including the translation and study of ancient Greek medical texts. This period is relevant to the video's theme as it marks a reconnection with the roots of medical knowledge and the transition to more modern scientific methods.

Highlights

Ancient Greek medicine combined spiritual and physical aspects, attributing health to a balance of humors, geography, social class, diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset.

Early Greeks viewed illnesses as divine punishments and healing as gifts from the Gods, shifting later to a cause-and-effect foundation in physicality.

Humorism, the theory of four bodily fluids—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile—was central to health and disease in ancient Greek medicine.

The role of sex in medicine was recognized, with some diseases and treatments being gender-specific.

Geographic location and social class influenced living conditions and exposure to environmental health hazards.

Diet was considered significant, with access to adequate nutrition affecting health.

Trauma, such as injuries sustained by gladiators, contributed to understanding anatomy and infections.

The mind's role in healing was acknowledged, with some illnesses believed to have a mental basis.

Hippocrates, known as the 'Father of Modern Medicine,' established the humoral theory and the Hippocratic Oath.

The Greek medical school in Cnidus, founded in 700 BC, was the earliest known, with Alcmaeon contributing the first anatomical compilation.

Asclepieia, temples dedicated to Asclepius, served as medical advice and healing centers, incorporating dream therapy and sacred treatments.

The Rod of Asclepius and Caduceus are often confused; the former symbolizes medicine with a single snake, while the latter represents Hermes with two snakes and wings.

Ancient Greek physicians initially considered disease as supernatural in origin, shifting to biological causation over time.

The Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of medical works, moved away from supernatural beliefs towards biological explanations for diseases.

Aristotle's biological writings emphasized empiricism and the diversity of life, influencing the understanding of natural processes.

Herophilus and Erasistratus advanced biological knowledge with experiments on veins, nerves, and the role of the brain in intelligence.

Galen, a prominent physician in the Roman Empire, had a lasting impact on various scientific disciplines, especially anatomy and physiology.

Dioscorides' De Materia Medica provided an encyclopedia of medicinal substances, influencing Western pharmacopeia for centuries.

The historical legacy of Greek medicine spread through the Roman Empire and later, through translations, influenced medieval and Renaissance medicine.

Transcripts

Ancient Greek medicine was a compilation of theories and practices that were constantly

expanding through new ideologies and trials. Many components were considered in ancient

Greek medicine, intertwining the spiritual with the physical. Specifically, the ancient

Greeks believed health was affected by the humors, geographic location, social class,

diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset. Early on the ancient Greeks believed that illnesses

were "divine punishments" and that healing was a "gift from the Gods". As trials continued

wherein theories were tested against symptoms and results, the pure spiritual beliefs regarding

"punishments" and "gifts" were replaced with a foundation based in the physical, i.e.,

cause and effect. Humorism (or the four humors) refers to blood,

phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. It was also theorized that sex played a role in medicine

because some diseases and treatments were different for females than for males. Moreover,

geographic location and social class affected the living conditions of the people and might

subject them to different environmental issues such as mosquitoes, rats, and availability

of clean drinking water. Diet was thought to be an issue as well and might be affected

by a lack of access to adequate nourishment. Trauma, such as that suffered by gladiators,

from dog bites or other injuries, played a role in theories relating to understanding

anatomy and infections. Additionally, there was significant focus on the beliefs and mindset

of the patient in the diagnosis and treatment theories. It was recognized that the mind

played a role in healing, or that it might also be the sole basis for the illness.Ancient

Greek medicine began to revolve around the theory of humors.The humoral theory states

that good health comes from a perfect balance of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow

bile, and black bile. Consequently, poor health resulted from improper balance of the four

humors. Hippocrates, known as the "Father of Modern Medicine", established a medical

school at Cos and is the most important figure in ancient Greek medicine. Hippocrates and

his students documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus, and developed the

Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still in use today. The contributions to ancient

Greek medicine of Hippocrates, Socrates and others had a lasting influence on Islamic

medicine and medieval European medicine until many of their findings eventually became obsolete

in the 14th century. The earliest known Greek medical school opened

in Cnidus in 700 BC. Alcmaeon, author of the first anatomical compilation, worked at this

school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Despite

their known respect for Egyptian medicine, attempts to discern any particular influence

on Greek practice at this early time have not been dramatically successful because of

the lack of sources and the challenge of understanding ancient medical terminology. It is clear,

however, that the Greeks imported Egyptian substances into their pharmacopoeia, and the

influence became more pronounced after the establishment of a school of Greek medicine

in Alexandria.

== Asclepieia ==

Asclepius was espoused as the first physician, and myth placed him as the son of Apollo.

Temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia (Greek: Ἀσκληπιεῖα;

sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον Asclepieion), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis,

and healing. At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep

known as "enkoimesis" (Greek: ἐγκοίμησις) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either

received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery. Asclepeia provided

carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements

of institutions created for healing. The Temple of Asclepius in Pergamum had a spring that

flowed down into an underground room in the Temple. People would come to drink the waters

and to bathe in them because they were believed to have medicinal properties. Mud baths and

hot teas such as chamomile were used to calm them or peppermint tea to soothe their headaches,

which is still a home remedy used by many today. The patients were encouraged to sleep

in the facilities too. Their dreams were interpreted by the doctors and their symptoms were then

reviewed. Dogs would occasionally be brought in to lick open wounds for assistance in their

healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BC

preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to

the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as

the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are

realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis

induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium.The Rod of Asclepius is a universal

symbol for medicine to this day. However, it is frequently confused with Caduceus, which

was a staff wielded by the god Hermes. The Rod of Asclepius embodies one snake with no

wings whereas Caduceus is represented by two snakes and a pair of wings depicting the swiftness

of Hermes.

== Ancient Greek physicians == Ancient Greek physicians regarded disease

as being of supernatural origin, brought about from the dissatisfaction of the gods or from

demonic possession. The fault of the ailment was placed on the patient and the role of

the physician was to conciliate with the gods or exorcise the demon with prayers, spells,

and sacrifices.

== The Hippocratic Corpus and Humorism ==

The Hippocratic Corpus opposes ancient beliefs, offering biologically based approaches to

disease instead of magical intervention. The Hippocratic Corpus is a collection of about

seventy early medical works from ancient Greece that are associated with Hippocrates and his

students. Although once thought to have been written by Hippocrates himself, many scholars

today believe that these texts were written by a series of authors over several decades.

The Corpus contains the treatise, the Sacred Disease, which argues that if all diseases

were derived from supernatural sources, biological medicines would not work. The establishment

of the humoral theory of medicine focused on the balance between blood, yellow and black

bile, and phlegm in the human body. Being too hot, cold, dry or wet disturbed the balance

between the humors, resulting in disease and illness. Gods and demons were not believed

to punish the patient, but attributed to bad air (miasma theory). Physicians who practiced

humoral medicine focused on reestablishing balance between the humors. The shift from

supernatural disease to biological disease did not completely abolish Greek religion,

but offered a new method of how physicians interacted with patients.

Ancient Greek physicians who followed humorism emphasized the importance of environment.

Physicians believed patients would be subjected to various diseases based on the environment

they resided. The local water supply and the direction the wind blew influenced the health

of the local populace. Patients played an important role in their treatment. Stated

in the treatise "Aphorisms", "[i]t is not enough for the physician to do what is necessary,

but the patient and the attendant must do their part as well". Patient compliance was

rooted in their respect for the physician. According to the treatise "Prognostic", a

physician was able to increase their reputation and respect through "prognosis", knowing the

outcome of the disease. Physicians had an active role in the lives of patients, taking

into consideration their residence. Distinguishing between fatal diseases and recoverable disease

was important for patient trust and respect, positively influencing patient compliance.

With the growth of patient compliance in Greek medicine, consent became an important factor

between the doctor and patient relationship. Presented with all the information concerning

the patient's health, the patient makes the decision to accept treatment. Physician and

patient responsibility is mentioned in the treatise "Epidemics", where it states, "there

are three factors in the practice of medicine: the disease, the patient and the physician.

The physician is the servant of science, and the patient must do what he can to fight the

disease with the assistance of the physician".

== Aristotle's influence on Greek perception ==

Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world

from antiquity. Aristotle's biological writings demonstrate great concern for empiricism,

biological causation, and the diversity of life. Aristotle did not experiment, however,

holding that items display their real natures in their own environments, rather than controlled

artificial ones. While in modern-day physics and chemistry this assumption has been found

unhelpful, in zoology and ethology it remains the dominant practice, and Aristotle's work

"retains real interest". He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits

and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, which he devoted considerable

attention to categorizing. In all, Aristotle classified 540 animal species, and dissected

at least 50. Aristotle believed that formal causes guided

all natural processes. Such a teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed

data as an expression of formal design; for example suggesting that Nature, giving no

animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and generally giving creatures faculties

only to such a degree as they are necessary. In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that

creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to

man—the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being.He held that the level of a creature's

perfection was reflected in its form, but not foreordained by that form. Yet another

aspect of his biology divided souls into three groups: a vegetative soul, responsible for

reproduction and growth; a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation; and

a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. He attributed only the first to plants, the

first two to animals, and all three to humans. Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers,

and like the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.

Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against

previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. Aristotle's successor at the

Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants—which

survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle

Ages. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit,

and pericarpion for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did,

Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial

processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the efficient cause. Theophrastus also

recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery

was lost in later ages. The biological/teleological ideas of Aristotle and Theophrastus, as well

as their emphasis on a series of axioms rather than on empirical observation, cannot be easily

separated from their consequent impact on Western medicine.

== Herophilus and Erasistratus ==

Following Theophrastus (d. 286 BC), the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though

interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is

not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be

again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria was Herophilus of Chalcedon, who

differed from Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system

to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the

latter pulse while the former do not. He did this using an experiment involving cutting

certain veins and arteries in a pig's neck until the squealing stopped. In the same vein,

he developed a diagnostic technique which relied upon distinguishing different types

of pulse. He, and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios, researched the role of veins and

nerves, mapping their courses across the body. Erasistratus connected the increased complexity

of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior intelligence.

He sometimes employed experiments to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing

a caged bird and noting its weight loss between feeding times. Following his teacher's researches

into pneumatics, he claimed that the human system of blood vessels was controlled by

vacuums, drawing blood across the body. In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body,

is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit,

and is then pumped by the arteries throughout the body. Some of this vital spirit reaches

the brain, where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves.

Herophilus and Erasistratus performed their experiments upon criminals given to them by

their Ptolemaic kings. They dissected these criminals alive, and "while they were still

breathing they observed parts which nature had formerly concealed, and examined their

position, colour, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, connection."Though

a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian

ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would

remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. In the

words of Ernst Mayr, "Nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and

Galen until the Renaissance." Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived,

but they were generally taken unquestioningly.

== Galen ==

Aelius Galenus was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire.

Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity, Galen influenced

the development of various scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology,

pharmacology, and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.

The son of Aelius Nicon, a wealthy architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a

comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and

philosopher. Born in Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen traveled extensively,

exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in

Rome, where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the

position of personal physician to several emperors.

Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine was principally influenced by the then-current

theory of humorism, as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His

theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years.

His anatomical reports, based mainly on dissection of monkeys, especially the Barbary macaque,

and pigs, remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations

of human dissections were published in the seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by

Andreas Vesalius where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations.

Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system endured until 1628, when William Harvey

published his treatise entitled De motu cordis, in which he established that blood circulates,

with the heart acting as a pump. Medical students continued to study Galen's writings until

well into the 19th century. Galen conducted many nerve ligation experiments that supported

the theory, which is still accepted today, that the brain controls all the motions of

the muscles by means of the cranial and peripheral nervous systems.Galen saw himself as both

a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician

is also a Philosopher. Galen was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and

empiricist medical sects, and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection represents

a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints.

== Dioscorides == The first century AD Greek physician, pharmacologist,

botanist, and Roman army surgeon Pedanius Dioscorides authored an encyclopedia of medicinal

substances commonly known as De Materia Medica. This work did not delve into medical theory

or explanation of pathogenesis, but described the uses and actions of some 600 substances,

based on empirical observation. Unlike other works of Classical antiquity, Dioscorides'

manuscript was never out of publication; it formed the basis for the Western pharmacopeia

through the 19th century, a true testament to the efficacy of the medicines described

; moreover, the influence of work on European herbal medicine eclipsed that of the Hippocratic

Corpes.

== Historical legacy == Through long contact with Greek culture, and

their eventual conquest of Greece, the Romans adopted a favorable view of Hippocratic medicine.This

acceptance led to the spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire, and

thus a large portion of the West. The most influential Roman scholar to continue and

expand on the Hippocratic tradition was Galen (d. c. 207). Study of Hippocratic and Galenic

texts, however, all but disappeared in the Latin West in the Early Middle Ages, following

the collapse of the Western Empire, although the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition of Greek

medicine continued to be studied and practiced in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). After

AD 750, Arab, Persian and Andalusi scholars translated Galen's and Dioscorides' works

in particular. Thereafter the Hippocratic-Galenic medical tradition was assimilated and eventually

expanded, with the most influential Muslim doctor-scholar being (Ibn Sina). Beginning

in the late eleventh century, the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition returned to the Latin West with

a series of translations of the Classical texts, mainly from Arabic translations but

occasionally from the original Greek. In the Renaissance, more translations of Galen and

Hippocrates directly from the Greek were made from newly available Byzantine manuscripts.

Galen's influence was so great that even after Western Europeans started making dissections

in the thirteenth century, scholars often assimilated findings into the Galenic model

that otherwise might have thrown Galen's accuracy into doubt. Over time, however, Classical

medical theory came to be superseded by increasing emphasis on scientific experimental methods

in the 16th and 17th centuries. Nevertheless, the Hippocratic-Galenic practice of bloodletting

was practiced into the 19th century, despite its empirical ineffectiveness and riskiness.

== See also == Medical community of ancient Rome

Medicine in ancient Rome On Ancient Medicine (Hippocratic Corpus)

Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences

History of medicine

== References ==

== Bibliography == Connor, J. T. H. An English Language Bibliography

of Classical Greek Medicine

== Further reading == Annas, Julia. Classical Greek Philosophy.

In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (ed.) The Oxford History of the Classical

World. Oxford University Press: New York, 1986. ISBN 0-19-872112-9

Barnes, Jonathan. Hellenistic Philosophy and Science. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper;

Murray, Oswyn (ed.) The Oxford History of the Classical World. Oxford University Press:

New York, 1986. ISBN 0-19-872112-9 Cohn-Haft, Louis. The Public Physicians of

Ancient Greece, Northampton, Massachusetts, 1956.

Guido, Majno. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World, Harvard University Press,

1975. Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy.

Volume I: The earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans. Cambridge University Press:

New York, 1962. ISBN 0-521-29420-7 Jones, W. H. S. Philosophy and Medicine in

Ancient Greece, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1946.

Lennox, James (2006-02-15). Aristotle's Biology. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Longrigg, James. Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmæon to the

Alexandrians, Routledge, 1993. Lovejoy, Arthur O. The Great Chain of Being:

A Study of the History of an Idea. Harvard University Press, 1936. Reprinted by Harper

& Row, ISBN 0-674-36150-4, 2005 paperback: ISBN 0-674-36153-9

Mason, Stephen F. A History of the Sciences. Collier Books: New York, 1956.

Mayr, Ernst. The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. The

Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1982. ISBN 0-674-36445-7

Nutton, Vivian. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Routledge, 2004

Heinrich von Staden (ed. trans.). Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria. Cambridge

University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-521-23646-0, ISBN 978-0-521-23646-1]

Longrigg, James. Greek Medicine From the Heroic to the Hellenistic Age. New York, NY, 1998.

ISBN 0-415-92087-6

== External links == Ancient Greek Medicine in medicinenet.com

Greek Medicine by the History of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine.

(in French) (in English) Medicine in Antiquity greekmedicine.net

Greek and Roman Medicine: An Introductory Bibliography for Graduate Students in Classics

at Ancient Medicine compiled by Lee T. Pearcy