How 99% of Ancient Literature was Lost

Summary

This script explores the evolution of writing mediums, highlighting the significance of the papyrus scroll in ancient times. It discusses the durability and versatility of papyrus, its role in the proliferation of literature, and the vast libraries of Rome and Alexandria. The narrative also touches on the challenges of manuscript preservation, the transition from scrolls to codices, and the impact of script changes on the survival of texts. The script concludes with a note on the fragility of texts before the advent of printing and a brief mention of the video's sponsor, Proform Technologies.

Takeaways

• 📜 The papyrus scroll was a significant innovation in ancient times, providing a durable writing surface made from the papyrus reed native to the Nile Delta.
• 📚 Scrolls varied greatly in size, with lengths ranging from 10 feet to over 80 feet, and were often wrapped around wooden or ivory rods for identification.
• 🎨 Scientific works and deluxe editions of literary classics were often illustrated, showcasing the importance of visual representation in ancient texts.
• 📦 Papyrus quality varied from polished 'royal' sheets for sacred texts to rough scraps used for everyday packaging in Roman markets.
• 📚 The production of books was extensive, with some scholars like Didymus writing thousands of books, highlighting the extensive literary culture of the time.
• 🏛️ Rome had a thriving book market with public libraries and private collections, indicating a widespread appreciation for literature and knowledge.
• 🔥 The Library of Alexandria was renowned for its vast collection, with estimates ranging from 400,000 to 700,000 scrolls, emphasizing its role as a center of learning.
• 🗑️ The loss of ancient literature was not due to a single event but the inherent fragility of texts before the advent of printing, leading to a gradual decline in manuscript numbers.
• 📝 The transition from scrolls to codices, or the early form of books, was a significant shift in text preservation, with codices eventually replacing scrolls in the third and fourth centuries.
• 📝 The adoption of cursive handwriting in the ninth century facilitated easier copying and reading, leading to the obsolescence of texts not adapted to the new script.
• 🏰 The survival of ancient texts was often precarious, with many works known to us today through a single surviving copy, highlighting the vulnerability of historical knowledge.

Q & A

What was the significance of the papyrus scroll in the history of writing?

The papyrus scroll was significant as it was one of the earliest forms of a writing surface, made from the fibrous inner pith of the papyrus reed native to the Nile Delta. It allowed for the creation of a smooth and durable surface for writing, which was a precursor to later innovations like the typewriter, printing press, and digital revolution.

What is the average height of a papyrus scroll, and how variable was its length?

The average height of a papyrus scroll was about 10 inches (or 25 cm). The length, however, could vary greatly, ranging from 10 feet to more than 80 feet, which is approximately from 3 to 25 meters.

How was text typically written on a papyrus scroll?

Text on a papyrus scroll was written as a continuous string of capital letters, with only cursory attempts at punctuation. This style was common for both Greek and Latin texts.

Can you provide an example of an illustrated papyrus scroll?

The Vienna Dioscorides manuscript, a scientific work, and the Vatican Virgil, a deluxe edition of a literary classic, are examples of papyrus scrolls that were illustrated.

What were the different grades of papyrus and how were they used?

Papyrus came in many grades, from the polished 'royal' sheets used for sacred texts to the rough scraps that were used for wrapping items like fish and chickpeas in Roman markets.

How did the production of papyrus scrolls contribute to the creation of a large number of books in the premodern era?

Good papyrus was affordable and abundant enough to fuel the production of a large number of books by premodern standards. The extant works of Roman doctor Galen, for example, comprise more than three million words, and scholar Didymus wrote over 2,000 books.

What was the role of the Roman book market in the proliferation of books?

The Roman book market was thriving, with dozens of sellers producing new editions and sponsoring author readings to attract customers. This market contributed to the wide availability and diversity of books.

How did the city of Rome demonstrate its commitment to literature and knowledge?

By late antiquity, Rome had 28 major public libraries, showcasing its commitment to literature and knowledge. Most substantial provincial cities also had at least one library.

What was the estimated number of scrolls in the Library of Alexandria, according to one Byzantine scholar?

One Byzantine scholar estimated that the Library of Alexandria contained 400,000 books with multiple works, 90,000 devoted to a single work, and an additional 42,800 outside the main complex, totaling 532,800 scrolls.

Why was the loss of ancient literature not solely attributed to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria?

The loss of ancient literature was not solely due to the destruction of the Library of Alexandria because it was a consequence of the basic fragility of texts before the advent of printing, which made them susceptible to decay and loss over time.

What technological change in the ninth century affected the survival of manuscripts?

In the ninth century, ancient scripts in both Greek and Latin were replaced by cursive hands that facilitated copying and reading. This change meant that texts not reproduced in the new minuscule scripts were often forgotten and did not survive.

How did the decline of the Roman Empire impact the production and preservation of manuscripts?

The decline of the Roman Empire led to the disappearance of the elite who traditionally commissioned new copies of manuscripts. This resulted in fewer manuscripts being produced, and those that were made often served specific purposes like religion, education, and technical disciplines, leading to the loss of many other texts.

Outlines

00:00

📜 The Papyrus Scroll: Ancient Textual Innovation

This paragraph delves into the history and significance of the papyrus scroll, a foundational innovation in the evolution of writing and text reproduction. Originating from the Nile Delta, the papyrus reed's fibrous inner pith was utilized by the Egyptians to create a durable writing surface by pressing strips together. Papyrus sheets were combined to form scrolls, varying in length from 10 to over 80 feet. Scrolls were often wrapped around wooden or ivory rods and were the primary medium for texts, including scientific works and deluxe editions of literary classics, which were sometimes illustrated. The paragraph also highlights the various grades of papyrus, from polished 'royal' sheets for sacred texts to rough scraps used in markets. Despite its cost, papyrus was affordable and abundant, enabling the production of a vast number of books. Examples include the extensive works of Roman doctor Galen and the prolific writings of the Alexandrian scholar Didymus. The paragraph also discusses the thriving book market in Rome, the prevalence of public and private libraries, and the legendary Library of Alexandria. It concludes with a reflection on the fragility of texts before printing and the loss of ancient literature, not due to a single event but the inherent vulnerability of these materials.

05:07

📚 Survival and Evolution of Manuscripts Over Time

The second paragraph explores the challenges faced by ancient manuscripts, particularly papyrus scrolls, in terms of longevity and survival. It mentions Alcuin of York, who witnessed scrolls over five centuries old, but notes that in humid climates, most papyri needed to be recopied every century. The Roman Empire's collapse led to a decline in manuscript production, with fewer copies commissioned by the elite, and a focus on religious, educational, and technical texts. The invention of the codex, an early form of the modern book, further contributed to the decline of the scroll, as it was more convenient for referencing scripture and was adopted by the Christian community. By the end of antiquity, texts not transferred to codices were at risk of being lost. The paragraph also discusses the transition from ancient scripts to cursive hands in the ninth century, which facilitated easier copying and reading, leading to the obsolescence of texts in older scripts. The summary concludes with examples of how few surviving copies of certain works, such as Tacitus' Histories, highlight the vulnerability of ancient literature to loss, whether through quiet decay or catastrophic events like the sack of Constantinople.

Keywords

💡Papyrus

Papyrus is a writing material made from the pith of the papyrus plant, native to the Nile Delta. It was used in ancient times to create scrolls by cutting the plant's stem into strips and pressing them together. In the video, papyrus is highlighted as a significant innovation in writing and text reproduction, predating paper, parchment, and the printing press. The script mentions that papyrus scrolls were durable and could be quite lengthy, serving as the primary medium for written works in the ancient world.

💡Scroll

A scroll is a document that is rolled up for storage and use, typically made from papyrus in the context of this video. The average height of a scroll was about 10 inches, and their lengths varied significantly, from 10 to over 80 feet. Scrolls were often wrapped around a rod and were the primary form of text organization before the advent of the codex. The script uses the scroll as an example to illustrate the evolution of text reproduction and the vast lengths of texts that could be produced on this medium.

💡Codex

The codex, as described in the script, is the prototype of the modern book and a significant shift from the scroll format. It consists of pages bound together, allowing for easier referencing and organization of text. The codex was initially used for personal notes and accounts by the Romans and later adopted by the Christian community for its practicality in referencing scripture. The script explains that the transition from scrolls to codices played a role in the loss of certain texts that were not transferred to this new format.

💡Library of Alexandria

The Library of Alexandria was one of the largest and most significant libraries of the ancient world, renowned for its vast collection of scrolls. The script mentions varying estimates of the number of scrolls it contained, ranging from 400,000 to 700,000 volumes. The library's destruction is often associated with the loss of a significant portion of ancient literature, although the script clarifies that the loss was not solely due to this single event but also to the fragility of texts and other factors.

💡Fragility of texts

The term 'fragility of texts' in the script refers to the vulnerability of written works to decay and loss over time, especially before the invention of printing. Papyrus scrolls, for example, had a limited lifespan and needed to be recopied regularly. The script explains that this fragility, combined with other factors such as the decline of the Roman Empire and the transition to the codex, contributed to the loss of a vast amount of ancient literature.

💡Cursive script

Cursive script is a style of handwriting where the letters are connected, making it faster to write and read. The script mentions that in the ninth century, both Greek and Latin scripts transitioned from cumbersome ancient scripts to cursive hands, which facilitated easier copying and reading. Texts that were not reproduced in these new scripts were at risk of being forgotten, illustrating the impact of technological changes on the preservation of written works.

💡Parchment

Parchment is a writing material made from the tanned skins of animals, such as sheep, goats, or cattle. It was used in the creation of notebooks and eventually the codex format. The script notes that parchment was used for personal notes and accounts by the Romans and was later adopted for the production of codices, which eventually replaced papyrus scrolls as the primary medium for written works.

💡Roman Empire

The Roman Empire is a historical empire that had a profound influence on the development of Western civilization. In the script, the collapse of the Roman Empire is mentioned as a significant event that impacted the production and preservation of manuscripts. The decline led to a decrease in the number of texts produced and affected the types of texts that were copied and preserved, contributing to the loss of certain works.

💡Copyists

Copyists were professionals who were responsible for the task of copying texts, particularly in the era before the printing press. The script describes large workshops of copyists who efficiently produced texts to meet the demand of a prosperous and cultivated elite. However, with the decline of the Roman Empire, the demand for new copies decreased, leading to fewer manuscripts being produced and a loss of certain texts.

💡Public libraries

Public libraries, as mentioned in the script, were institutions that housed collections of books and scrolls available to the public. The city of Rome, for example, had 28 major public libraries, and most substantial provincial cities had at least one. These libraries played a crucial role in the dissemination and preservation of knowledge, with some, like the library of Timgad, potentially containing over 20,000 volumes.

💡Didymus

Didymus, also known as 'Bronze Guts' due to his incredible work ethic, was an Alexandrian scholar who wrote more than 2,000 books. The script uses Didymus as an example to illustrate the scale of book production in the ancient world and the challenges of preserving such a vast amount of literature, to the extent that even prolific authors like Didymus reportedly forgot half of their own works.

Highlights

The digital revolution has made it possible to generate and store information on an unprecedented scale.

Papyrus scrolls were an early form of text reproduction, made from the fibrous inner pith of the papyrus reed.

Papyrus sheets were pasted together to create scrolls that could range from 3 to 25 meters in length.

Scrolls were often wrapped around a wooden or ivory rod and could be identified with tags.

Early texts were written in continuous capital letters with minimal punctuation.

Some scientific and literary works were illustrated, such as the Vienna Dioscorides manuscript and the Vatican Virgil.

Papyrus quality varied greatly, from polished 'royal' sheets to rough scraps used for wrapping goods.

Despite its cost, papyrus was affordable and abundant, enabling the production of a large number of books.

The Roman doctor Galen's works comprise over three million words, demonstrating the extensive use of papyrus.

The scholar Didymus wrote more than 2,000 books, highlighting the productivity facilitated by papyrus.

Rome had a thriving book market with dozens of sellers and public readings to attract customers.

Faux-antique scrolls were produced by unscrupulous sellers to deceive connoisseurs seeking rare editions.

Rome boasted 28 major public libraries, and many provincial cities had at least one, showcasing the prevalence of literacy.

The Library of Alexandria was the greatest of ancient libraries, with estimates of its holdings ranging up to 700,000 volumes.

The loss of ancient literature was not due to a single event but the fragility of texts before printing.

Papyrus scrolls had a long lifespan, with some found in Herculaneum being over 300 years old.

The invention of the codex, a precursor to the modern book, eventually replaced papyrus scrolls.

The transition from ancient scripts to cursive hands in the ninth century led to the loss of texts not copied in the new script.

The manuscript population was significantly smaller in the Middle Ages due to various factors, including technological changes.

The preservation of Greek and Latin classics was often tenuous, with entire works being lost to decay or disaster.

Transcripts

Between us and the ancient world stand a series of  innovations that have made it progressively easier  

to write and reproduce texts. At the recent end of  that series is the digital revolution, which has  

made it possible to generate and store information  on a scale unimaginable even a few decades ago. 

But before the typewriter or the printing  press, before paper or parchment,  

cursive script, or the first bound  book, there was the papyrus scroll. 

The papyrus reed is native to  the marshes of the Nile Delta.  

Early in their history, the Egyptians discovered  that the fibrous inner pith of the plant’s stem  

could be cut into strips and pressed together  to make a smooth and durable writing surface. 

Sheets of papyrus were pasted  together to make scrolls.  

The average height of a scroll was about 10 inches  (or 25 cm). The length ranged from 10 to more than  

80 feet – that is, from about 3 to 25 meters. The  scroll was often wrapped around a wooden or ivory  

rod, to which an identifying tag might be tied. The Greek or Latin text in a scroll was written  

as a continuous string of capital letters,  with only cursory attempts at punctuation. 

Scientific works, like the Vienna  Dioscorides manuscript, were illustrated.  

So were deluxe editions of literary  classics, like the Vatican Virgil. 

There were many grades of papyrus, ranging  from the polished “royal” sheets on which  

sacred texts were inscribed to the rough scraps  that wrapped fish and chickpeas in Roman markets.  

Although good papyrus was never cheap, it  was affordable and abundant enough to fuel  

the production of what was – by premodern  standards – an incredible number of books. 

The extant works of the great Roman doctor Galen,  for example, run to more than three million words.  

The tireless Alexandrian scholar Didymus  (nicknamed “Bronze Guts” for his inhuman  

work ethic) wrote more than 2,000 books – so  many that he reportedly forgot half of them. 

The city of Rome had a thriving book  market, in which dozens of sellers  

produced new editions and sponsored  author readings to capture customers.  

So many Roman connoisseurs browsed shops  for rare editions that unscrupulous sellers  

took to producing faux-antique scrolls,  artificially aged by being buried in grain. 

By late antiquity, the city of Rome could boast  28 major public libraries, and most substantial  

provincial cities had at least one. These could  be very substantial: the library of Timgad,  

on the edge of the Sahara, may have contained  over 20,000 volumes. Some private libraries  

were even larger: one third-century scholar  reportedly owned more than 60,000 books. 

The greatest of all ancient libraries,  of course, was the Library of Alexandria.  

Our sources disagree on the  number of scrolls it contained.  

One Byzantine scholar claimed that were 400,000  books containing multiple works, 90,000 devoted  

to a single work, and an additional 42,800  outside the main complex – a total of 532,800.  

Two Roman texts record that no fewer than 700,000  volumes were lost when the library burned. 

However many books the Library of Alexandria  contained, and however many of those books  

were lost when it went up in flames,  the loss of all but a tiny fraction of  

ancient literature was not brought about  by the disappearance of a single library.  

It was, instead, a consequence of the basic  fragility of texts before the advent of printing.  

Before we explore that, a brief  word about this video’s sponsor. 

Proform Technologies is a family-owned company  with a proud 32-year history of providing print,  

promotional, and apparel to large and  mid-size companies across America.  

If you’re responsible for purchasing such  products for a large or mid-sized firm,  

consider partnering with Proform  for all your branding needs.  

To learn more about Proform’s services,  follow the link in the description. 

A brief note before we continue. I’ve always  enjoyed working with small businesses like Proform  

and Woosh Drains of Astoria, Queens. If you own  or manage a small or mid-sized business, and  

would like to introduce your product or services  to a global audience of hundreds of thousands,  

consider advertising here on toldinstone. Email  me at [email protected] to find out more. 

Back to our topic. Papyrus scrolls could last a  long time. Some of the scrolls found in the Villa  

of the Papyri at Herculaneum were more than  300 years old when Vesuvius carbonized them.  

Alcuin of York – writing at the end of the eighth  century – saw papyrus scrolls at Tours that  

must have been at least half a millennium old. In the humid climates of Western Europe, however,  

most papyri had to be recopied every century or  so. When the economy was healthy and there was  

strong demand from a prosperous and cultivated  elite, this wasn’t a problem; large workshops  

of professional copyists efficiently produced  more than enough texts to supply the market. 

But when the Roman Empire collapsed, the elites  who had traditionally commissioned new copies all  

but vanished. Far fewer manuscripts were  produced, and those that were tended to  

serve the particular purposes of religion,  education, and the technical disciplines.  

Authors who wrote in unfamiliar dialects,  on topics repugnant to the church,  

or at inordinate length were not  recopied, and faded into oblivion. 

Another barrier to survival was the invention  of the codex, the prototype of the modern book.  

From the first century onward, to keep personal  notes and accounts, the Romans used notebooks  

with leaves of parchment, a writing material made  from the tanned skins of sheep, goats, or cattle. 

The codex format was adopted by the growing  Christian community, which preferred  

codices to scrolls for the ease of referencing  scripture. Partly through Christian influence,  

codices definitively displaced scrolls over  the course of the third and fourth centuries.  

Any text not copied to a codex by the end of  antiquity was unlikely to survive the Middle Ages. 

Another “technological” change occurred over the  course of the ninth century when, in both Greek  

and Latin, cumbersome ancient scripts were  replaced by cursive hands that facilitated  

copying and reading. Texts not reproduced  in the new miniscule scripts were forgotten. 

For all these reasons, the population of  manuscripts was much smaller in the Middle  

Ages than it had been in antiquity. A single  manuscript found at the Abbey of Monte Cassino,  

for example, is responsible for our knowledge of  Tacitus’ Histories, and the first six books of  

the same author’s Annals existed only in another  manuscript found at the German Abbey of Corvey. 

Many Greek classics, likewise, were preserved only  in one or two copies at Constantinople. A single  

disaster could thus be extremely destructive.  The sack of Constantinople in 1204, for example,  

destroyed the final remaining copies of dozens  of ancient works that had survived to that point. 

But the last examples of most lost  Greek and Latin classics died quietly,  

decaying for centuries on monastery shelves  until they were swept away with the dust. 

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enjoy my book, Naked Statues, Fat Gladiators,  and War Elephants. Thanks for watching.