Documental "Dentro de la célula / Inside the cell"
Summary
TLDREste documental explora la complejidad de las células, desde su formación hasta su papel en el organismo. Cubre temas como la estructura de las células, su división, la energía obtenida de la glucosa y su conversión en ATP, y la importancia de la diversificación celular en organismos multicelulares. Aborda también la comunicación celular, la defensa del organismo frente a patógenos, y la muerte celular como proceso natural. Además, destaca la importancia de la investigación para entender y tratar enfermedades, y la colaboración de diversas disciplinas científicas en el avance de la biología celular.
Takeaways
- 🌊 La vida en la Tierra depende del agua, que representa el 70% de cada célula y ofreció el medio para la formación de las primeras células hace 4.5 mil millones de años.
- 📦 Los lípidos son esenciales para la formación de las células, ya que pueden formar membranas que actúan como barrera entre la célula y el exterior, y también forman estructuras internas llamadas organelos.
- 🧬 Las ácidos nucleicos constituyen nuestro material genético y tienen la capacidad única de auto-reproducirse, lo cual es una propiedad distintiva de la vida.
- 🧬📚 La información genética está codificada en el ADN, que se encuentra en el núcleo y es esencial para construir y hacer funcionar una célula.
- 🌱 La división celular es esencial para el crecimiento y el reemplazo de células en el cuerpo humano, con aproximadamente 300 millones de células reemplazadas al minuto.
- 🛡️ Los puntos de control en la división celular aseguran una función correcta y equilibra la acción de genes que promueven o inhiben el crecimiento y la división celular.
- 🚨 El estudio de las células sanguíneas y el cáncer ha ayudado a identificar nuevas alteraciones que mejoran el diagnóstico y la pronoóstico de enfermedades como las leucemias y linfomas.
- 🔋 La energía de las células proviene principalmente del glucógeno, que se transforma en ATP a través de reacciones en las que los mitocondrios juegan un papel crucial.
- 🔬 La diversificación de los tipos de células en el cuerpo humano ha permitido una alta complejidad, con más de 200 tipos de células especializadas en funciones específicas.
- 🌱🧬 Aunque todas las células en nuestro organismo tienen el mismo catálogo genético, la especialización en diferentes funciones hace que algunos genes estén activos y otros inactivos.
- 💊 La investigación en células y modelos animales busca cambios en la comunicación celular en enfermedades cardiovasculares o metabólicas relacionadas con la obesidad y la diabetes, y en ciertos tumores.
Q & A
¿De qué están hechos las células?
-Las células están compuestas principalmente de agua, que representa el 70% de su composición, y lipidos que forman membranas y estructuras internas llamadas orgánulos, como el núcleo o las mitochondrias.
¿Por qué son importantes las membranas celulares?
-Las membranas celulares actúan como barrera entre la célula y el exterior, permitiendo el intercambio selectivo de moléculas y manteniendo la integridad de la célula.
¿Qué son las enfermedades asociadas a los lípidos y cómo afectan a la salud?
-Las enfermedades asociadas a los lípidos, como el síndrome de Niemann Pick, pueden causar discapacidad mental y muerte temprana debido a alteraciones en los niveles de lípidos que afectan las funciones celulares.
¿Cuál es la función de las proteínas en la célula?
-Las proteínas desempeñan la mayoría de las funciones biológicas de la célula, incluyendo la realización de reacciones químicas, el transporte de sustancias y la estructura de la célula.
¿Cómo se replica el material genético de una célula?
-El material genético, compuesto principalmente de ADN, se replica mediante la acción de la enzima ADN polisomerase, que utiliza cada cadena del helix doble como plantilla para crear una copia idéntica.
¿Qué es la apoptosis y qué función cumple en el organismo?
-La apoptosis es un proceso de muerte celular controlado que permite la eliminación de células dañadas o en exceso, manteniendo el equilibrio y la homeostasis en el organismo.
¿Cómo se divide una célula y qué importancia tienen los puntos de control en este proceso?
-La división celular implica el crecimiento y la duplicación de estructuras y componentes, incluyendo el ADN. Los puntos de control aseguran que el proceso se realice correctamente, comprobar que el ADN se ha copiado adecuadamente y que las cromosomas se distribuyan equitativamente entre las células hijas.
¿Qué son las células madre y cómo contribuyen a la regeneración y al cáncer?
-Las células madre son undiferenciadas y se dividen de manera asimétrica, dando lugar a una célula madre y otra que se diferencia. En el cáncer, las células madre tumorales pueden renovar el tumor y hacerlo resistente a la terapia.
¿Cómo se transforma la glucosa en energía para las células?
-La glucosa, a través de reacciones como la glucólisis y la oxidación aérea en las mitochondrias, se convierte en ATP, la moneda energética de la célula.
¿Qué es el lenguaje celular y cómo se comunican las células entre sí?
-El lenguaje celular puede ser químico, a través de moléculas mensajeras que interactúan con receptores en la membrana celular, o eléctrico, como en los impulsos nerviosos que se transmiten entre las células del sistema nervioso.
¿Cómo defienden las células el organismo de los patógenos?
-Las células defienden el organismo mediante el sistema inmunológico, que reconoce y elimina células infectadas, y a través de la producción de moléculas antimicrobianas y la activación de mecanismos de respuesta inmunitaria.
¿Por qué es importante el estudio de la presentación de antígenos en el sistema inmunológico?
-El estudio de la presentación de antígenos es fundamental para comprender cómo el sistema inmunológico reconoce y responde a infecciones, y es la base para el desarrollo de vacunas.
¿Cómo se produce la diversificación de tipos celulares en un organismo multicelular?
-La diversificación de tipos celulares ocurre a través del proceso de especialización, donde las células adquieren funciones específicas y se diferencian para formar los más de 200 tipos celulares distintos en seres humanos.
Outlines
🧬 La Composición y Función de las Células
El primer párrafo introduce las bases de la vida celular, destacando el papel del agua y los lípidos en la formación y aislamiento de las células. Se menciona la importancia de las membranas y los orgánulos, como el núcleo y las mitocondrias, en la estructura y función celular. Además, se explora cómo las alteraciones en los niveles de lípidos pueden causar enfermedades graves, como el síndrome de Niemann Pick. La sección también cubre la importancia de otras moléculas, como carbohidratos, vitaminas, iones, proteínas y ácidos nucleicos, con un enfoque en la auto-reproducción de los genes y su traducción en proteínas a través de los ribosomas. Finalmente, se presenta la investigación del laboratorio en la regulación de la síntesis de proteínas y la importancia de los ribosomas en la evolución de la vida en la Tierra.
🌱 Proceso de División Celular y su Control
Este párrafo se centra en el proceso de división celular, desde el crecimiento y la duplicación de estructuras hasta la replicación de ADN y su importancia en la creación de células hijas con información genética idéntica. Se discute la importancia de la corrección de errores durante la replicación del ADN y se mencionan los mecanismos de reparación. Además, se describe cómo el ADN se compacta en cromosomas y se distribuye equitativamente entre las células hijas. Se incluyen los puntos de control de la división celular y su regulación por genas como protooncogenes y supressor genéticos, así como la investigación del laboratorio en tumores sanguíneos y su impacto en el desarrollo de nuevos tratamientos.
🚀 Energía y Metabolismo en las Células
El tercer párrafo explora cómo las células transforman la comida en energía, enfocándose en el papel central de la glucosa y su oxidación completa en las mitocondrias. Se describen los transportadores mitocondriales y su función crucial en la entrada de compuestos a las mitocondrias. Además, se explica cómo la cadena de transporte de electrones y la síntesis de ATP aprovechan el gradiente de protones para producir energía. Se discuten las conexiones entre las mitocondrias y diversas patologías, incluyendo el cáncer y las enfermedades neurodegenerativas, y cómo el laboratorio investiga en el papel de las mitocondrias en estas afecciones.
🌿 La Diversificación de las Células en Organismos Multicelulares
Este segmento examina la evolución de la vida multicelular y la especialización de las células para realizar funciones específicas. Se describe cómo la competencia entre formas de vida llevó a la formación de comunidades complejas y cómo algunas células perdieron su identidad para dar lugar a los primeros organismos multicelulares. Se mencionan más de 200 tipos de células en los seres humanos, cada una con funciones altamente especializadas. Además, se discuten las barreras celulares y su papel en la regulación de respuestas inflamatorias, así como la importancia de los organismos unicelulares en el mundo subterráneo y su relación con los organismos multicelulares.
🧬 La Diversidad Celular y el Control de la Expresión Genética
El quinto párrafo se centra en cómo se generan diferentes tipos de células a partir del mismo catálogo genético. Se explica cómo la expresión de genes varía de una célula a otra y cómo los factores de transcripción controlan la activación o inactivación de genes. Se discute el uso de moscas de la fruta como modelos para investigar el desarrollo y la especialización celular. Además, se explora el concepto de células madre y su papel en la regeneración y en el cáncer, así como la investigación del laboratorio en células normales y tumorales para desarrollar nuevas terapias.
🤝 El Lenguaje de las Células y su Comunicación
Este segmento cubre cómo las células se comunican entre sí, ya sea a través de señales químicas o eléctricas. Se describe el papel de las proteínas receptoras en la detección de moléculas en el exterior de la célula y la transmisión de señales dentro de la célula. Se mencionan ejemplos de moléculas de mensajero, como la insulina y la adrenalina, y cómo estas se relacionan con respuestas fisiológicas. Además, se discuten las alteraciones en los sistemas de señalización en diversas patologías y cómo los fármacos pueden modular esta comunicación para tratar enfermedades como la hipertensión, el dolor o el asma.
🛡 La Defensa de las Células y el Sistema Inmune
El sexto párrafo se enfoca en cómo las células se defienden de microorganismos patógenos y cómo el sistema inmune contribuye a la eliminación de células infectadas. Se describe el papel de las células inmunitarias, como los macrófagos y las células dendríticas, en la detección y eliminación de patógenos. Además, se discute la importancia del procesamiento y la presentación de antígenos para el sistema inmune y cómo la investigación en este área puede ayudar a desarrollar vacunas y tratamientos para enfermedades infecciosas.
💀 La Muerte de las Células y su Papel en el Organismo
Este párrafo explora el concepto de muerte celular y su importancia para el bienestar del organismo. Se explica que la muerte celular es necesaria para reemplazar células viejas con nuevas y que el proceso de envejecimiento de las células se debe a la acumulación de daños por radicales libres. Se discute el proceso de apoptosis y su papel en el desarrollo y la homeostasis del organismo. Además, se destaca la importancia de la investigación en biología molecular y cómo esta ha avanzado nuestra comprensión de los procesos celulares y de los organismos.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Células
💡Lípidos
💡Ácidos Nucleicos
💡Proteínas
💡División Celular
💡Cromosomas
💡Cáncer
💡Mitocondoncias
💡Plásticidad Neuronal
💡Inmunidad
💡Apoptosis
Highlights
El 70% de cada célula está compuesto por agua, que ofreció el medio para la formación de las primeras células hace 4.5 mil millones de años.
Los lípidos son esenciales para la formación de membranas que aíslan la célula de su entorno y forman estructuras internas como el núcleo o mitochondrias.
Las alteraciones en los niveles de lípidos pueden causar enfermedades graves, como el síndrome de Niemann Pick, que lleva a discapacidad mental y muerte temprana.
Los ácidos nucleicos constituyen nuestro material genético y tienen la capacidad única de producir copias de sí mismos, una propiedad distintiva de la vida.
El ADN, confinado en el núcleo, contiene la información genética necesaria para construir y hacer funcionar una célula.
Las ribosomas leen la secuencia genética y la transforman en proteínas, que realizan la mayoría de las funciones biológicas de la célula.
La división celular permite el crecimiento durante el desarrollo y, en la adultez, reemplaza células muertas y renueva algunos tejidos.
El proceso de división celular tiene puntos de control para asegurar una función adecuada y equilibrar la expresión de genes que promueven o inhiben el crecimiento.
El metabolismo de las células transforma los alimentos en energía, principalmente a través de glucosa, que se oxida completamente en las mitocondrias.
Las mitocondrias son impermeables a la mayoría de los compuestos y requieren transporteres específicos para la oxidación completa de los compuestos de glucosa.
El ATP sintetasa, una turbina de muchos proteínas, genera ATP celular usando el gradiente de protones y regula procesos de envejecimiento y muerte celular.
La diversificación de células en organismos multicelulares ha permitido una alta complejidad, como el pensamiento abstracto humano.
Las células en nuestro organismo tienen el mismo catálogo genético, pero la especialización en diferentes funciones hace que algunos genes estén activados y otros inactivados.
Las células madre son undiferenciadas y se dividen asimétricamente, manteniendo una como célula madre y diferenciando a la otra en células descendientes.
El lenguaje de las células es químico o eléctrico, con receptores en la superficie que detectan moléculas como neurotransmisores o hormonas.
La plasticidad de las conexiones neuronales es fundamental para almacenar información y memorias, y se pierde en patologías como la enfermedad de Alzheimer.
Las células han aprendido a coexistir con microorganismos, y han desarrollado defensas contra patógenos que usan sus recursos y pueden destruirlas.
El sistema inmune elimina células infectadas mediante macrófagos y dendriticas, que presentan antígenos a linfocitos para una respuesta efectiva contra infecciones.
El estudio de la procesamiento y presentación de antígenos es clave para enseñar a los linfocitos a eliminar células infectadas y es la base de las vacunas.
Las células mueren para que el cuerpo pueda vivir, reemplazándose por células jóvenes y manteniendo el proceso de envejecimiento y regeneración.
La apoptosis es un proceso de muerte celular controlada que se utiliza durante el desarrollo y la homeostasis del organismo adulto.
Transcripts
8 great questions about the cell
A documentary from the CBMSO
A production by Scienseed
Funded by FECYT and MINECO
What are cells made of?
Life on Earth cannot be understood without water.
In fact, 70% of each cell is made up of this molecule
which 4.5 billion years ago offered the medium
in which chemical compounds associated and organised themselves to form the first cells.
For the first cells to be formed, they had to be isolated from their surroundings
to which a new type of essential molecule contributed: the lipids.
Lipids are capable of forming structures by associating, which are called membranes
and act as barriers between the cell and the outside.
In addition, lipids form internal membranes and structures inside cells,
called organelles, such as the nucleus or mitochondria, which have different functions.
The proportion of lipids in membranes changes
and this defines the cell’s characteristics as well as their function
That is why abnormalities in lipid levels can lead to very serious diseases,
including a rare syndrome called Niemann Pick
leading to mental disability and early death.
Thanks to a mouse model for this human disease,
we are trying to understand what is wrong,
in order to be able to reverse it or prevent it using drugs or gene therapy.
If we succeed,
we hope to contribute to the development of a treatment for a disease
that today has no cure.
But in addition to lipids there are other molecule families
that are also essential for life as we understand it.
These are carbohydrates or sugars,
vitamins, some ions,
and for their relevance, I would also highlight proteins and nucleic acids.
Nucleic acids constitute our genetic material, our genes.
They are a very special type of biological molecules,
because they have the ability to produce copies of themselves
(self-replication).
This is a distinctive property of life.
Genes are essentially made up of a type of nucleic acid, DNA,
which is confined within the nucleus,
and contains the necessary genetic information to build a cell and to make it work.
Genetic information is coded.
In order to be expressed,
it needs to be translated
using a genetic code and the cell’s molecular machines,
which are called ribosomes.
Ribosomes can read the gene sequence and transform it into proteins.
These are essential biological molecules that carry out most of the cell’s biological functions.
Proteins are everywhere:
on the surface of cells,
involved in the transport of substances,
making up the scaffold,
and carrying out the biological functions of the chemical reactions inside the cell.
In our lab, we study the structure and function of ribosomes
so that we can better understand how protein production is regulated.
The appearance of ribosomes during the evolution of life on Earth was very important,
because it allowed the transition from the prebiotic world
in which chemical reactions were carried out by simple molecules
to the world as we know it today
in which biological functions are carried out primarily by proteins,
which are much more effective, and have the ability to carry out more complex processes.
How does a cell create another cell?
A cell, before dividing itself,
has to grow and produce enough material to generate daughter cells.
In order to do this, the cell duplicates most of its structures and components
but above all, it must be careful
in obtaining an identical copy of its genetic material: DNA.
The DNA molecule is a very special molecule with a double helix structure
in which each strand contains the same genetic information
providing a crucial backup of the genetic material.
DNA replication is carried out by a very important and specialised enzyme, the DNA polymerase,
which is able to replicate each chain using the other one for reference.
This replica is very faithful and almost without errors,
but some mistakes do occur and must be corrected.
On the other hand, DNA molecules are very stable,
but can still be damaged by physical or chemical agents
and they need to be repaired.
Our lab is interested in the molecular mechanisms in cells for detecting and correcting DNA damage,
specifically double-stranded DNA fractures,
which are the most dangerous ones,
since this damage would lead to an unequal division of genetic material between the two daughter cells.
Once the DNA has been replicated, and most of the errors have been corrected,
the association with specific proteins allows it to be rolled up upon itself and compacted,
forming chromosomes.
These chromosomes will equally distribute among the daughter cells,
so each of them contains the same genetic information as its parent.
Cell division allows us to grow during development
and, when we reach adulthood, it replaces dead cells
and even renews some tissue cells.
It is estimated that human beings are able to renew or replace about 300 million cells
... per minute.
Obviously without us being aware of it.
The cell division process has a series of control points
to ensure a smooth function.
The first control point is used so that cells can identify
if favorable circumstances exist for initiating the cell division process
i.e. if there are enough nutrients, oxygen
and stimulatory molecules present in the medium
such as growth factors.
The second checkpoint will serve to identify that the DNA has been properly copied.
The last checkpoint will ensure that the chromosomes are well aligned
so that chromosome distribution in the daughter cells is correct.
Cell division and control points work thanks to the coordinated action of two types of genes:
genes called protooncogenes, which promote growth and cell division
and suppressor genes, which tend to inhibit or slow it down.
In homeostatic conditions there is a balance
in the expression of these genes, responding to cellular needs.
However, this balance is altered in the case of cancer
by activating mutations in protooncogenes, which would send constant proliferation signals,
and by inactivating mutations in suppressor genes.
In recent years, our team has been studying a special type of blood tumour,
leukemias and lymphomas,
and working with animal models and samples coming directly from patients.
Our results have helped identify new alterations
that are being used to improve diagnosis
and prognosis of these diseases
and even to suggest new therapeutic strategies.
How do cells transform food into energy?
Most of the energy cells need comes from glucose,
which is the main sugar molecule.
This energy is extracted through different reactions and transformed into ATP.
On a second phase, glucose requires complete oxidation
in a process that depends on oxygen,
where an even greater amount of energy is obtained.
This second phase occurs in an important organelle: the mitochondria, the powerhouses of the cell.
These glucose-derived compounds need to enter the mitochondria to oxidise completely.
However, mitochondria are impermeable for most compounds,
so special proteins are required at the inner mitochondrial membrane.
These are the mitochondrial transporters,
which are necessary for other proteins to enter the mitochondria and completely oxidise.
As well as transporters, in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
there are two very important pieces of cellular machinery:
one is the electron transport chain that will generate
the proton gradient on both sides of the membrane.
That proton gradient is going to be used by the famous proton ATP synthase,
a complex formed of many proteins
that acts as a turbine
to generate cellular ATP using the proton gradient.
The ATP synthase is not only a multi-protein complex responsible for the synthesis of ATP.
It is also very important because it regulates ageing
and survival processes, as well as death processes,
which happens when cell die.
Since mitochondria have an essential role in the cell
it is easy to understand that in many pathologies they do not work properly.
This has been seen in cancer, degenerative diseases, and cardiovascular diseases.
We have been working for many years on neurometabolic diseases,
which are classified as rare due to their low prevalence.
In many of them, specifically in organic acidurias,
toxic metabolites are accumulated and damage the mitochondria.
As a consequence, these mitochondria will generate molecules derived from oxygen,
which in turn will damage other cell components such as DNA, proteins, or lipids.
We characterise these processes in cells from patients and from mice models,
so that we can to try to correct these defects.
Why do we have so many different cell types in our body?
About 500 million years ago,
the competition between different lifeforms led some unicellular organisms
to associate in increasingly complex communities.
Some of these associations were so deep
that some individual cells lost their identity,
and the first multicellular organisms emerged.
In multicellular organisms the strategy that has been maintained
is the specialisation or diversification of work
and today we have cells which
are highly specialised in performing specific functions.
For instance, in the case of humans
there are more than 200 different cell types,
there are functions as diverse as
the transmission of the nerve impulse from brain neurons
or the heart muscle cells that keep the heartbeat.
And it has been precisely this diversification in different cell types
and this degree of specialisation
what has allowed multicellular organisms
to reach a very high level of complexity
which in humans can be illustrated with our ability for abstract thinking.
One of the strategies of complex organisms to perform specialised functions
is forming cellular barriers that compartmentalise tissues.
A clear example is the vascular endothelium that covers the inner side of blood vessels
which can separate the function of transporting nutrients and oxygen from the rest of the tissue.
In our lab, we study how cellular barriers regulate inflammatory responses
when tissue damage is caused by infection or trauma,
different signals are produced
which induce an increase in the permeability of these barriers
so that immune cells can access the damaged area,
remove microbes and damaged cells, and repair the tissue.
We cannot forget that all these multicellular systems come from unicellular ones
which are the oldest and most abundant on the planet.
Within unicellular organisms, we have to mention those with particular metabolisms,
that are very versatile and can obtain energy from inorganic compounds
such as minerals or very recalcitrant compounds like petroleum.
And within that area, a special mention to a world that we do not know,
that we call the dark biosphere, which is precisely everything that is underground,
and which we just recently started studying.
Multicellular organisms depend on the unicellular ones,
not just for biogeochemical cycles such as the Carbon or Nitrogen cycles,
but also because they are in places such as our skin, our mouth, or our intestines,
performing their functions with their versatile metabolisms
that allow us to exist and work properly.
Recently it has also been observed that this group of microorganisms associated with humans
that we call biome may be dysfunctional,
and this may cause diseases.
How can we obtain such different cells with the same genetic material?
All cells in our organism have the same genetic catalog
which is made up of 20,000 genes.
This doesn’t mean that every cell uses every gene:
specialisation in different functions make each cell acquire a different configuration
in which some genes are on and some are off.
Whether genes are turned on or off depends largely on the conformation of DNA.
DNA is a long, coiled structure inside the nucleus,
and so there will be some genes which are more accessible than others.
Transcription factors are vital proteins that will control genes being turned on or off.
These proteins selectively bind to the beginning of genes,
reading their information,
transcribing their message and ultimately producing the protein.
In our laboratory we use fruit flies as an animal model,
since genetic tools developed in the last 100 years allow us
to address the problems that we want to solve easily and quickly.
In addition, the results that we obtain from our study with the fly
can be extrapolated to more complex organisms like us.
Generally, the process of turning genes on and off during development is so decisive for cell specialisation
that it is irreversible.
Marks will be generated which limit conformation and accessibility of DNA,
and which make it so that a liver cell
cannot be converted into anything other than a liver cell until its death,
and can never generate a neuron, for instance,
because it is programmed irreversibly. and can never generate a neuron, for instance,
because it is programmed irreversibly.
This is what happens under normal conditions,
which is why there are tissue stem cells
responsible for generating all types of cells in the tissue.
These stem cells are undifferentiated cells that divide asymmetrically,
so their daughter cells are not the same.
One will remain a stem cell,
and the other one will differentiate into the descendant cells.
These stem cells play an essential role in cancer
because there are tumour stem cells
that renew the tumour and make it resistant to therapy.
This is why in our group we investigate normal and tumour cells
in order to find new therapies that can replace or complement existing ones.
What is the language of cells?
When you are nervous, several things happen:
your heart beats faster, your breathing speeds up
and your blood pressure rises.
In order to coordinate all these actions between different organs,
cells in these organs must have a common language.
And basically, the language of cells is either chemical or electrical.
Chemical language is based on the existence of receptor proteins on the surface of each cell.
These proteins serve as antennas, and detect the presence of molecules
such as neurotransmitters or hormones on the outside.
When they join these neurotransmitters or hormones
they can then transmit that signal inside the cell.
There are many types of messenger molecules, but all of them are produced or released
in response to changes in the environment,
in order to allow an adequate response of the body.
Thus, pancreatic cells release insulin
in response to high glucose levels after a meal
to promote nutrient storage in tissues.
In alarm situations our adrenal glands release adrenalin,
which coordinates the action of multiple tissues involved in stress responses.
These signalling systems are altered in many pathological situations
either by excess or defect of their normal function,
and many drugs modulate this communication between molecules and receptors
in order to attenuate the effects of the pathology,
as it happens in hypertension, pain, or asthma.
Our research group uses cellular and mouse models
in order to find changes in cell communication
in cardiovascular or metabolic diseases related to obesity and diabetes
and also in certain tumours
so that we can identify new useful diagnostic tools for the treatment of these pathologies.
At neurons is where chemical signals are transformed into electrical nervous impulses.
This happens at high speed and is critical for neurons
to process information and store it quickly.
It is estimated that the human brain contains almost 100 billion neurons.
Each neuron communicates with another 1000 individual neurons approximately.
This is a tremendously complex communication or connectivity pattern
and it is fundamental to all the cognitive activities that make us human.
Decision making, whether we decide to park our car in one place or another of the parking lot
whether we are more optimistic or pessimistic one morning
it all happens through this pattern of communication between neurons.
In the lab we use electrophysiology techniques with micro electrodes
to record the electrical activity of neurones In the lab we use electrophysiology techniques with micro electrodes
to record the electrical activity of neurons
and what we are observing is that this connectivity pattern is very plastic:
neurons adjust their connections according to the stimuli they receive.
We now know that this is fundamental to store information and memories
and that in pathological situations such as Alzheimer's disease
this plasticity is lost.
Now, with what we are learning in the lab,
we try to use pharmacological and molecular tools to recover this plasticity
and hopefully even regain cognitive ability in Alzheimer's patients.
How do cells defend themselves, and how do they defend our organism?
During evolution, cells have learned to coexist with microorganisms How do cells defend themselves, and how do they defend our organism?
During evolution, cells have learned to coexist with microorganisms
such as parasites, bacteria, or viruses that live in our environment.
Some of these microorganisms are considered pathogens
because they use cell resources, and may even destroy it.
In order to avoid this attack, cells have learned to defend themselves against these microorganisms.
At the same time, microorganisms have developed
very sophisticated strategies to counteract cell defenses.
This has led to the development of an arms race at the molecular level
between microorganisms and cells has been happening for millions of years.
The body's way of eliminating infected cells
is through the use of a specific system known as the immune system.
Some immune system cells which are capable of immediately recognising an infected cell
are, for instance, macrophages
that will rapidly remove any cells infected by pathogens.
Other cells of the immune system patrol the body.
They are called dendritic cells, and they’re able to reach the infection site,
pick up the pathogen, and transport it to an anatomical location,
specifically the lymph nodes and spleen.
Once there, they show that pathogen to other cells called lymphocytes,
which are going to learn the type of pathogen that is infecting us and multiply
forming an army that will leave the lymph nodes and spleen,
find the infection site, and eliminate it.
Our immune system defends us from infections,
but in order to do so, it has to find out very early on
what is happening in an infected cell and distinguish it from an uninfected one.
How is this done?
By producing small fragments of viral proteins
and presenting them on the surface of the infected cell.
Once these peptides derived from the virus are there,
T lymphocytes, that are like the police of our immune system
are able to recognise an infected cell
differentiate it from one that is not infected
and then eliminate the infected ones, and completely remove the infection.
Why is it important to study and learn about antigen processing and presentation,
which is what we do in our lab?
Because this way, we can teach our T lymphocytes how to eliminate infected cells.
Ideally this is done before the infection takes place
so that when there is one afterwards there is a rapid, effective and very strong response
maybe even avoiding illness.
This is important because it is the basis of vaccines:
preventing disease when we face a pathogenic organism.
Why do cells die?
Cells die so that the body can live.
In other words, it is necessary for a cell to die and be replaced by young cells.
This happens because cells do not have an infinite lifespan:
actually, they have very short lives.
Before dying, a cell enters into a process called ageing
which is nothing but a loss of function.
This is caused because living cells consume oxygen, nutrients, glucose, amino acids,
and generate free radicals that damage proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.
All this causes the cell to work less efficiently.
When this happens, its replication ability is compromised or lost
and sends signals to stem cells in the vicinity.
They receive these stimuli and generate new cells that replace the old ones.
The problem is that these stem cells also suffer the ageing process
because they have also been consuming oxygen and nutrients
and they are losing their capacity to regenerate.
So when we are older, we have organs with many old cells
and with very little capacity to regenerate.
There is a type of cell death called apoptosis
which is a process by which certain cells decide to enter
a path of differentiation that leads to their disappearance.
This mechanism was first identified in an animal model called C. elegans, a worm
and it has been found to be a universal process conserved in all species studied so far.
In general, apoptosis functions both during normal development
where it participates in the modelling of the size and shape of organs
and in the maintenance of homeostasis of the adult organism
where it contributes to the elimination of cells that, for environmental or genetic reasons,
have been damaged and need to be eliminated.
In both cases this process of apoptosis is used, leading to the elimination of cells.
Research in molecular biology has spread to all aspects of the biology of cells and organisms.
These advances have happened due to the intensive and extensive work
of a few generations of scientists working since the 1940s
who have revolutionised our knowledge of cellular processes,
and provided the basic tools to further develop the fields of medicine and biotechnology.
However, much work remains to be done to understand all the processes that take place inside our cells.
Present and future generations will deepen this basic knowledge
in order to understand our evolutionary origins, our cells,
and the diseases that affect us.
A documentary from the Centre for Molecular Biology Severo Ochoa
Funded by the Spanish Foundation for Science and Technology - Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness
A production by Scienseed
The research shown in this documentary would have not been possible without the support of technical and administrative services at CBMSO, that perform a very specialized function often using the latest technologies. We are truly grateful for their collaboration, and in particular we thank those involved in the completion of this documentary:
Confocal microscopy, Animal facility, Electron microscopy, Bioinformatics, Library, Flow Citometry
Genomics and massive sequencing, Fermentation service, Proteomics, Computing services, Science and Society
We thank all the scientists that have participated, in one way or another, in this project.
The CBMSO is supported by:
Madrid, December 2016
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