The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course European History #24

Summary

ジョン・グリーンが解説するこのビデオは、ヨーロッパ史における産業革命の重要性に焦点を当てています。1820年から1920年までの劇的な変化を描写し、機械化、工場の出現、技術の進歩が人々の生活を大きく変えた様子が語られます。綿の生産や工場労働における子供や女性の役割、さらに蒸気機関の発明による輸送や都市化の進展も取り上げられ、産業化が社会階級や労働条件に及ぼす影響が強調されています。産業革命が現代まで続く変化をもたらしたことを考察します。

Takeaways

• 🏭 産業革命は、1820年代から1920年代にかけて英国を中心に起こった重要な歴史的転換であり、人々の生活様式に多大な影響を与えました。
• 🌾 産業革命前は、ほとんどの人が農業に従事しており、生活は太陽の周期に基づいており、近代的な機械やインフラはほとんどありませんでした。
• 🔧 産業革命は、農業から工場や運輸、鉱業などへの労働力の移行をもたらし、労働時間が分単位で測られるようになりました。
• 🚗 産業革命の結果、自動車やラジオ、冷蔵庫などの近代的な技術が登場し、生活は大幅に変わりました。
• ⚔️ 産業革命により、1914-1918年の戦争において、非常に致命的な兵器が使用され、その前には想像もできなかったほどの犠牲者が出ました。
• 🌾 産業革命は、農業革命と貿易革命によってもたらされた生産性の向上と都市への物品の配布が促進された結果です。
• 👕 産業革命は、英国の布地などの工場生産を促進し、世界市場での需要に応えるために工場が誕生しました。
• 👩‍🎓 産業革命は、多数の人々が小さな改善を重ねて協力し合い、徐々に進歩を遂げた結果であり、単一の天才の発明によるものではありませんでした。
• 👶 産業革命は、子供労働や奴隷労働、女性の低賃金労働を通じて生じたものであり、労働条件は非常に厳しく、産業事故も頻発しました。
• 🌐 スチームエンジンの開発により、産業革命は英国と低地諸国からヨーロッパ全体に広がり、都市化と交通網の整備が進みました。
• 🏙️ 産業革命は、社会構造に新しい階級をもたらし、ブルジョワジとプロレタリアの間に対立が生じるようになりました。

Q & A

産業革命の前、1820年頃のイギリスの生活はどのようなものでしたか？

1820年頃のイギリスでは多くの人が農業に従事しており、電気や水道がない生活を送っていました。衣類は手洗いし、火を使って料理をし、時間は主に太陽の動きに基づいて把握されていました。この生活は1520年や1220年の人々とほとんど変わりませんでした。

産業革命後の1920年の生活はどのように変わりましたか？

1920年には多くの人が農業から工場や商業、交通に従事するようになりました。自動車が登場し、時間は分単位で測られるようになり、一部の人々はラジオや冷蔵庫を所有していました。飛行機も登場し、生活が劇的に変化しました。

産業革命が始まった18世紀の背景にはどのような要因がありましたか？

18世紀には戦争や疫病、小氷期が終わり、ヨーロッパの人口が増加しました。コーヒーや紅茶、チョコレートの消費が広まり、バクテリアの除去や新しい食材が普及し、栄養状態が向上しました。これにより、人々は学習や実験に時間を費やす余裕ができ、多くの技術革新が生まれました。

ジョン・ケイのフライングシャトルやジェームズ・ハーグリーブスのスピニングジェニーの役割は何ですか？

ジョン・ケイのフライングシャトルは織りの速度と生産性を向上させ、ジェームズ・ハーグリーブスのスピニングジェニーは一度に120個の糸を紡ぐことができ、生産を大幅に拡大しました。これにより織工は大量の糸を必要とし、糸紡ぎの機械化が進展しました。

蒸気機関の発明が産業革命にどのような影響を与えましたか？

ジェームズ・ワットの蒸気機関は以前のモデルを改良し、効率を向上させました。この発明により、工場や鉱山での動力が動物や水から蒸気に置き換わり、生産性が飛躍的に向上しました。また、蒸気機関は鉄道や船舶に応用され、交通革命も引き起こしました。

産業革命における児童労働の状況はどのようなものでしたか？

産業革命の時期には、多くの子どもたちが工場や鉱山で働かされていました。長時間労働や過酷な環境での事故が多発し、死亡や重傷を負うケースがしばしばありました。例えば、7歳の子どもが石炭鉱山で重い荷物を運ぶなど、劣悪な労働条件が問題となっていました。

産業スパイが産業革命において果たした役割は何ですか？

産業スパイは他国や他地域の技術を盗み、模倣することで、ヨーロッパの産業技術の発展を支えました。たとえば、リチャード・アークライトはインドや中国から輸入された織物のデザインを模倣し、綿織物の生産を大きく進展させました。

産業革命が都市化に与えた影響は何ですか？

産業革命により都市部では工場や鉄道が発展し、人口が急増しました。特にイギリスのマンチェスターでは、1750年代の人口2万人が100年後には40万人に達しました。しかし、都市化に伴い、劣悪な衛生環境やスラムの発展、伝染病の蔓延が問題となりました。

労働者階級が産業革命に対してどのように反応しましたか？

初期には機械を破壊するルーディテ運動などの反乱がありましたが、次第に労働者たちは労働組合を結成し、賃金や労働条件の改善を求めるストライキを行うようになりました。このように、労働者は組織的な抵抗を通じて権利を主張しました。

産業革命によって社会階層にどのような変化が生じましたか？

産業革命によって資本家階級であるブルジョワジーと労働者階級であるプロレタリアートが台頭し、社会階層が大きく変化しました。中間層には医師や弁護士、教師などの専門職が登場し、これらの階層間の対立や緊張が新たな社会構造を形作りました。

Outlines

00:00

🛠️ 産業革命のはじまり

ジョン・グリーンが司会するヨーロッパ史のシリーズで、産業革命について取り上げる。1820年のイギリスでは、多くの人々が農業に従事し、生活は基本的に中世と変わらない。そこから1920年に目を覚ますと、工場やショップで働く人々、車や飛行機が登場し、生活は劇的に変化している。この変化が産業革命によるもので、18世紀には工業生産が始まり、機械の改良と技術革新が進んでいったことが説明される。

05:00

🍽️ 磁器と産業スパイ

ヨーロッパでは磁器が高く評価されており、王の命令でボットガーが磁器製造に成功した。磁器や繊維製品のような工業製品は多くの小さな改良と他国からのスパイ活動によって進化した。産業革命は天才の発明ではなく、協力と漸進的な改良の結果である。また、工場では低賃金や児童労働が広く行われ、産業労働の過酷さが描かれる。

10:05

🚂 都市化と社会構造の変化

産業化は急速な都市化をもたらし、鉄道の登場が都市の発展を促進した。社会構造も大きく変化し、ブルジョワジー（工場や銀行の所有者）やプロレタリアート（工場労働者）が新たな階級として登場した。女性も工場労働に従事し、多くの人々が新しい生活様式を受け入れざるを得なくなった。こうした変化は各階級のアイデンティティ形成に影響を与え、社会的な緊張も生まれた。

15:09

🌍 産業革命の拡大と未来への影響

産業革命はイギリスと低地諸国から始まり、19世紀を通じてヨーロッパ全土に広がったが、東欧では密度が低かった。産業革命が単なる歴史上の出来事ではなく、現在も続く技術革新の原動力であることが強調される。現代の私たちが技術の変化を当然のこととして受け入れているのは、産業革命のおかげであり、未来がどれほど変化するかを考えると不安になるほどである。次回は、産業化の文化的・政治的側面をさらに掘り下げる予定である。

Keywords

💡産業革命

産業革命とは、18世紀から19世紀にかけてヨーロッパで始まった大規模な経済的・社会的変革を指します。農業から工業への移行により、人々の生活が劇的に変わりました。例えば、1820年と1920年の間に、農業中心の生活から工場労働や都市生活への移行が進み、技術や製品の革新が加速しました。

💡工場制

工場制は、複数の機械が中央の動力源に繋がれ、一つの建物内で大量生産を行う生産方式です。この方式は、繊維産業などで特に発展し、より効率的な生産を可能にしました。例えば、リチャード・アークライトの水力紡績機は、水力を利用して繊維を紡ぐことで、工場制を進展させました。

💡労働者階級

労働者階級とは、工場や鉱山などで働き、自身の土地や生産手段を持たない人々を指します。産業革命に伴い、多くの人々が都市に移り住み、工場労働者として働くようになりました。このクラスの人々は、劣悪な労働条件に直面し、しばしば組合を結成して自分たちの権利を守ろうとしました。

💡児童労働

児童労働は、子どもたちが過酷な労働環境で働くことを指します。産業革命期には、特に孤児院や慈善団体からの子どもたちが、工場で長時間働かされ、多くが事故や病気で命を落としました。例えば、メアリー・リチャーズという少女が機械に巻き込まれて命を落とす悲劇がありました。

💡蒸気機関

蒸気機関は、蒸気の力を利用して機械を動かす装置で、産業革命の主要な原動力となりました。ジェームズ・ワットが1776年に開発した蒸気機関は、従来のモデルよりも効率的で、工場や鉱山、さらには輸送手段にも応用されました。蒸気機関は人々の労働の在り方を根本的に変え、機械化を進展させました。

💡ブルジョアジー

ブルジョアジーは、産業革命期に都市に住み、工場や銀行、土地などを所有する裕福な市民階級を指します。彼らは産業の発展に伴い、財産を蓄え、社会的な影響力を持つようになりました。この階級は、社会構造の変化に伴い、労働者階級との間で様々な緊張が生じました。

💡技術革新

技術革新は、新しい技術や製品の開発によって、生産性や効率を飛躍的に向上させることを指します。産業革命では、織機の改良や蒸気機関の発明など、様々な技術革新が社会全体に大きな影響を与えました。例えば、ジョン・ケイの飛び杼（とびひ）が織りの速度を大幅に向上させました。

💡都市化

都市化は、人口が都市に集中し、都市が急速に発展する現象を指します。産業革命により、工場が都市に集中し、多くの人々が都市部に移住するようになりました。例えば、マンチェスターでは、18世紀半ばの人口が約20,000人だったのに対し、19世紀半ばには400,000人にまで増加しました。

💡公害

公害は、工業活動や都市化に伴って生じる環境汚染を指します。産業革命期の都市では、工場からの排出物や劣悪な衛生環境が原因で、住民の健康が脅かされました。例えば、マンチェスターでは汚水や廃棄物が街中に溢れ、「汚れと臭いの普遍的な雰囲気」が広がっていたと報告されています。

💡社会構造の変化

社会構造の変化とは、産業革命によって生じた階級や労働の在り方の変化を指します。農村部から都市部への人口移動に伴い、農民、労働者階級、ブルジョアジー、中産階級といった新たな社会階層が形成されました。これにより、社会的な緊張や対立が生じ、労働組合の形成や社会改革運動が進展しました。

Highlights

The Industrial Revolution was one of the most significant developments in human history.

In 1820, life in England was largely agrarian and lacked modern conveniences like running water and electricity.

By 1920, the majority of English people worked in non-agricultural sectors such as factories and workshops.

The Industrial Revolution brought about significant changes in the way time was measured and perceived.

Inventions like cars, radios, and refrigerators became part of everyday life by the early 20th century.

The revolution led to the emergence of new social classes: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

The rise in productivity was fueled by revolutions in agriculture and trade.

Inventions like the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny increased the pace and productivity of textile production.

The world's first factories arose to meet the demand for increased production of English cloth.

The Industrial Revolution was driven by a series of incremental improvements rather than a few groundbreaking inventions.

Industrial spies played a crucial role in the development of new technologies by copying designs from abroad.

Child labor was common and often dangerous in the early industrial era.

The demand for slave labor increased to support the growing industrial workforce.

The steam engine, improved by James Watt, revolutionized power and transportation.

Urbanization soared with the development of railways, leading to the growth of cities and new job opportunities.

The Industrial Revolution led to the formation of workers' clubs and eventually labor unions.

The Swing riots in Britain exemplify the 'primitive' rebellion against industrialization.

The Industrial Revolution is considered ongoing, with technology continuing to dramatically change our lives.

Transcripts

Hi I’m John Green and this is Crash Course European History.

So we’re going to turn our attention now to the Industrial Revolution, one of the most

significant developments in human history.

Like, imagine with me that it’s 1820.

I got this idea from the economist Robert Gordon by the way.

You live in, say, England.

You probably work in agriculture.

When you walk to town, you’re either pulling your own cart, or if you’re lucky you have

a horse.

You have no running water or electricity.

When you wash your few items of clothing, you do so by hand.

You cook over a fire.

You think of time not primarily in minutes and hours, but mostly in relationship to solar

cycles--how close it is to night, or to morning, or to midwinter.

And in all these respects, your life in 1820 is basically identical to the lives of people

in 1720, or 1520, or for that matter 1220.

That’s not to say life hasn’t changed in those hundreds of years--as we’ve explored

in this series, lots has changed--but as Gregory Clark observed, in terms of standard of living,

Europeans in 1800 basically led lives similar to those of Neandrathals.

Now imagine that you close your eyes in 1820 and wake up in 1920.

By now, most people in England do not work in agriculture.

They may work in shops, or transportation, or mining, oe workshops, or in factories.

They measure time in minutes.

Cars exist.

Some people have radios, which transmitted information through thin air.

A few people even have refrigerators, which dramatically decrease food spoilage and the

risk of foodborne illness.

Occasionally you might even see an airplane flying in the sky.

Oh, and also, your country has just emerged from an astonishingly deadly war fought with

highly lethal weapons such as chlorine gas, weapons that people of 1820 could not possibly

have imagined.

Welcome to the Industrial Revolution.

[Intro] In this series, we’ve already talked about

revolutions in agriculture that increased European productivity and revolutions in trade

that increasingly distributed goods among people in towns and cities instead of having

each individual family produce everything it needed.

And these forces combined to help create more division of labor: like, farmers could focus

on farming, and textile workers could focus on textile creation, which was more efficient

than having each family do every kind of work.

So let’s begin in the eighteenth century, when European industrial production is said

to have begun.

Europe’s population was growing after centuries of non-stop wars, plagues, and the worst of

the little ice age.

Meanwhile, products such as coffee, tea, and chocolate made with heated water killed bacteria,

while products from abroad expanded and varied the pool of nutrients, with corn and potatoes,

for instance, generally more calorie-dense per acre than wheat.

In short, lives were getting longer and populations rising.

This meant that on average people had a little more time to learn, tinker, and experiment.

Many different artisans invented small improvements to existing mechanical devices.

Perhaps most famously, John Kay’s flying shuttle increased the pace and productivity

of weaving.

Weavers then needed a greater amount of thread.

So tinkerers made that happen by producing inventions such as the spinning jenny, created

around 1764 by craftsman James Hargreaves.

The spinning jenny was a machine used by individual women working at home.

And it allowed a person, using just the power of their hand, to spin not one bobbin of thread,

but up to 120 at once.

In England, Ellen Hacking and her husband John were among those devising carding machines

to straighten cotton and wool fibers for spinning.

And at about the same time, Richard Arkwright and his partners invented the water frame,

another kind of spinning machine that used water power.

And when spinning machines could be linked to a central power source such as water, many

could be placed in a single building.

So, the world’s first factories arose in part from the pressure to increase production

of English cloth for global and domestic markets.

Did the center of the world just open?

Is one of my Polo shirts in there?

This cost like $41.

Twice a year I go to a Polo outlet in Southern Indiana and just buy as many of these things

as they’ll sell to me.

And look, I’m not here to advertise Polo shirts, but this thing is incredibly comfortable,

and also, it’s like dyed a specific color.

Everything about this was completely unimaginable in the early nineteenth century.

In fact, you know what?

It’s so soft to the touch, I think I’m going to put it on.

Is that weird.

Oh yeah!

I feel like I’m the bad guy in an 80s movie.

How do I look, Stan?

Oh, Stan says I look like Steve Bannon.

OK.

Thus ends that experiment, now back to the show.

Let’s talk about porcelain.

Another tinkerer was the alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger who promised the king of

Saxony that he could figure out how to make porcelain.

Porcelain was such an obsession that wealthy people collected it and even those with far

less would try to buy a piece or two—a cup or plate—as we see in many Dutch, French,

and other paintings.

Two things you see a lot in European paintings of the affluent or those who aspired to affluence:

porcelain and pineapples, which were also quite rare and expensive and difficult to

produce domestically.

Porcelain was also practical, because Europeans did not know other ways to make heat resistant

dishware for their hot drinks.

So Böttger was virtually imprisoned until around 1708 when he figured out how to make

porcelain, although not as beautifully as the Chinese or Japanese did.

What we’re trying to get at here is that while people love a great story of an inventor

and their invention, the Industrial Revolution was the story of lots and lots of people working

together, making a series of incremental improvements, rather than, like, geniuses from on high creating

amazing things.

The real genius of humans is collaboration, and also spying.

Like for instance, Industrial spies helped with every development because other regions

were far more advanced than Europe in manufacturing, for instance, color fast dyes and heat-resistant

dishware, fine weaving and spinning, or even metallurgy.

Arkwright, for example, mostly copied designs from imported textiles.

And it was those cotton textiles that caught the imagination of consumers and filled pockets,

first of the people who imported textiles from India and China, and then of the daring

manufacturers who were successful at copying the lightweight, and colorful, and washable

cotton clothing.

But industrial production of cotton was really risky—the rate of business failure during

the Industrial Revolution was over 50 percent.

Because of that, experimenting manufacturers worked to keep labor costs as low as they

could.

One way was to use unpaid orphans from government, religious or charitable institutions as labour.

At a time when people didn’t know a lot about steam powered machinery and its dangers,

industrial accidents happened all the time, and children were often the victims.

Children worked incredibly long hours and deaths were common.

Little Mary Richards was caught up in a machine and six- and seven- year old orphans working

alongside her witnessed the quote “bones of her arms, legs, thighs, etc successively

snap... her head appeared dashed to pieces... her blood thrown about like water from a twirled

mop.”2 Now I know that’s very graphic, but I think

it’s important to understand the extent of industrial oppression, including the industrial

oppression of children.

Workers lost arms, eyes, breasts, and fingers or were otherwise disfigured.

Production and profits came first to avoid financial ruin.

And industry had other repercussions.

It initially increased the demand for slaves even more.

Slaves produced food for workers who had left farms for factories.

Slaves also produced tropical crops such as sugar, and tobacco, and coffee that boosted

the energy of many types of workers.

And slaves provided the palm and other tropical oils to keep machinery running as well as

the raw materials for industry, especially cotton.

It’s important to understand that industry thrived due to slave labor and inexpensive

child labor, and also through the labor of women, who were paid less than men.

Over time, more and more people began working in industrialized settings, or in economic

sectors that supported industry due in part to the development of the steam engine.

In 1776, English inventor James Watt launched a steam engine that improved earlier models.

Now as far back as Roman Egypt and then Ottoman Egypt and China, people had known about steam

engines, But Watt’s engine was more efficient, which made it useful in replacing animal and

water power, not just in mines but also powering textile factories, and then other machinery.

For millennia, almost all human power came from our muscles.

Then we harnessed some animal power, and eventually some wind and water power.

But steam power completely revolutionized how much work could be done on behalf of humans,

and also of course changed transportation when it was attached to covered and uncovered

wagons and ships to make trains and steamships and eventually automobiles.

And the train created another kind of demand: as urbanization soared around railway hubs,

small and grand train stations were built along with all the other buildings to house

the railway’s primary and secondary employees.

By secondary employees I mean, it wasn’t just station-masters, ticket-sellers, and

conductors, there was a need for shopkeepers, and pharmacists, and construction workers,

and teachers, and doctors, and and drivers of coaches, not to mention sanitation workers,

police, and urban administrators.

Industrialization had a snowball effect and it wasn’t gonna be turned back.

And all this mean that everyday life also transformed.

Two classes became prominent alongside the aristocracy and peasants in the social structure:

the bourgeoisie and proletariat or working class.

The bourgeoisie initially referred to people who lived in towns and cities or burgs/bourgs.

But the term came to refer to those who owned factories, banks, transportation networks,

and large tracts of land for raising livestock and crops.

The proletariat comprise the many factory and other workers who lacked tools or land

to support themselves but instead rather labored for factory owners and others who had the

means to produce.

In between were the rising professional groups, called the middle class in Europe: the doctors,

lawyers, teachers, and others with special skills that serviced society as a whole.

We will see this configuration change over the next two centuries and watch tensions

unfold among these groups, and at times boil over.

Women also experienced a transformation of everyday life.

In the preceding centuries, they had generally worked on farms or in workshops alongside

their artisan husbands or on their own as hatmakers, and seamstresses, and weavers,

and spinners.

During the early days of industrialization, women who had been spinning or weaving at

home often switched to factories.

And they did many other kinds of work; for example, eighteen-year-old Ann Eggly with

her younger sister worked twelve-hour days in the coal mines pushing carriages filled

with 800 pounds of coal (which was then used to make steam power).

She had done this kind of work since she was seven.

I don’t know if you know any seven year olds, but they should not be working in coal

mines.

Now you’ll recall that the French and American revolutions, with their emphasis on motherhood

and laws stripping women of their property, led to women being discouraged from work.

But many continued to do so even when their wages belonged to their husbands.

Factories also created (and still create) outwork done by women at home: polishing knives

or painting porcelain buttons for example.

But, ideology simultaneously shifted to say that women were to be “angels in the household,”

providing comfort from the horrors of industrial life, a cultural norm that discouraged work

outside the home.

In the meantime, the classes became aware of their individual identities.

The French had outlawed guilds during the revolution.

Industrial and other workers formed their own clubs to protect their interests.

They created singing, gymnastic, and sports clubs--this is why early English football

teams had names like Royal Engineers AFC and Civil Service FC.

These groups often had a lively cafe culture, where they discussed politics and read newspapers,

often allowed to their comrades because each cafe usually only had one newspaper.

Manufacturers and wealthy individuals in cities likewise formed groups based on their common

class position; they founded chambers of commerce to protect their financial interests and museums

to show off their city’s achievements and good taste.

Let’s go to the Thought Bubble.

1.

Initially, the rise of factories saw those left out of industrial work life,

2.

such as artisans and small farmers,

3.

protest by breaking machinery or threatening to do so.

4.

The “Swing riots” in Britain are one example of what has been called “primitive” rebellion.

5.

Instead of dealing with change by organizing to benefit from and shape the change,

6.

so-called primitive rebels went about breaking things.

7.

Wreckers of machinery were called Luddites

8. (as they still are today)

9. because menacing notes found alongside sabotage were often signed Ned Ludd.

10.

Ludd was an inspirational figure -- a weaver who allegedly smashed a textile machine in

the 18th century.

11.

But gradually, workers inside the factories formed mutual aid societies

12. and eventually unions that negotiated for better terms with owners.

And when negotiations failed,

13.

they went on strike as a group instead of wrecking the machines with which they earned

their living.

14.

All in all, industrialization wreaked havoc on people’s lives even as it provided many

with livelihoods.

15.

Towns grew astronomically: like textile center Manchester England went from 20,000 people

in the 1750s to 400,000 a century later.

16.

Conditions in Manchester were abominable, including the development of slums, and the

spread of disease.

17.

They came to lack fresh and safe supplies of water.

18.

Garbage and sewage, not to mention animal excrement, filled muddy streets,

19.

creating, in the words of one commentator, “a universal atmosphere of filth and stink.”[1]

20. and Conditions in other industrial cities hardly differed.

Thanks Thought Bubble.

So, Industrialization spread from England and the low countries where it began thanks

to the capital raised by worldwide trade, and because that trade made possible successful

imitation of foreign products.

But industrialization then spread.

It traveled the continent through the 19th century, although industrialization was less

dense in eastern Europe.

There, many peasants continued to live hand-to-mouth, but as we’ve seen, so did the poor in industrial

cities.

So was the Industrial Revolution a revolution?

Well, if a revolution is an event full of impact on people’s lives, it certainly was.

But often historians look at revolutions as, like, ending, which the Industrial Revolution

really hasn’t.

Unlike the comparatively brief English Revolution or American Revolution, many see the Industrial

Revolution as continuing to make dramatic changes in our way of life today.

Today, we expect technologies to change dramatically in our lifetimes.

We expect to use different tools to communicate and work than our parents used.

But that expectation is only a couple hundred years old.

It makes you wonder.

If you closed your eyes in 2020, and woke up in 2120, how weird is the world gonna be.

Ugh.

Thinking about that is stressing me out.Next time, we’ll look further at the cultural

and political aspects of industrialization.

I’ll see you then.

Thanks for watching.

________________ [1] Quoted in Lynn Hunt et al., The Making

of the West: Peoples and Cultures, 6th ed.

(Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s, 2019) 21.