Sympathetic Nervous System: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #14

Summary

This script from Crash Course explores the role of the sympathetic nervous system in stress responses. It explains how the system, designed for life-or-death situations, is triggered by everyday stressors, leading to a full-body response. The script details the chemical messengers, neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and hormones like norepinephrine and epinephrine, which play crucial roles in this process. It also highlights the dual nature of norepinephrine as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, and how it can have varying effects on the body depending on the receptors it interacts with. The discussion concludes with the impact of frequent stress responses on health and sets the stage for the next topic on the parasympathetic system.

Takeaways

• 🚨 The loudness of smoke alarms is crucial for alerting individuals to immediate danger, triggering a stress response.
• 🔥 Stress can be beneficial in life-threatening situations, as it activates the sympathetic nervous system to prioritize immediate survival needs.
• 🏃‍♂️ The sympathetic nervous system suppresses non-essential functions to focus energy on critical responses, such as muscle strength and heart rate.
• 🧠 Neurotransmitters and hormones are key chemical messengers in the stress response, with acetylcholine and norepinephrine playing central roles.
• 🔗 Neurons communicate across synapses, with the sympathetic nervous system using two synapses to relay signals from the spinal cord to effector organs.
• 🌐 The same chemical can act as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, with its role depending on where it operates in the body.
• 🔄 Norepinephrine can have opposite effects on the body depending on the type of receptors present on the effector organs, such as alpha causing constriction and beta causing relaxation.
• 🏠 In a stress situation, like a house fire, the body redirects blood flow to muscles and away from non-essential areas like the digestive system.
• 🤯 Daily stressors that are not life-threatening can still trigger the same physiological stress response as those that are, which can be detrimental over time.
• ⚠️ Chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system due to frequent stress can lead to health issues like high blood pressure and a weakened immune system.
• 🛑 The body needs to balance the stress response with the parasympathetic system to ensure rest and recovery, which will be discussed in a subsequent lesson.

Q & A

What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the body's 'fight or flight' response to stress, focusing on what the body needs to do immediately to deal with a threat, such as a life-or-death situation.

Why are smoke alarms designed to be so loud?

Smoke alarms are loud to quickly alert individuals to potential danger, such as a fire, prompting an immediate response to escape the hazardous situation.

What physiological response does stress trigger in the body?

Stress triggers a range of physiological responses, including an increased heart rate, rapid breathing, and sweating, which prepare the body to deal with a perceived threat.

How does the sympathetic nervous system prioritize the body's functions during a stress response?

The sympathetic nervous system prioritizes functions by temporarily suppressing non-essential activities like digestion and reproduction, focusing energy on the brain, heart, and muscles to address the immediate threat.

What is the role of neurotransmitters in the sympathetic nervous system?

Neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, are chemicals that neurons use to communicate with each other or their effector organs across a synapse, facilitating the transmission of signals in the sympathetic nervous system.

What is the significance of the adrenal glands in the body's stress response?

The adrenal glands play a crucial role in the stress response by releasing hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream, which affect various organs and systems to prepare the body for action.

How can the same chemical act as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone?

A chemical can act as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone depending on its function. As a neurotransmitter, it travels across a synapse between neurons. As a hormone, it is secreted into the bloodstream for widespread distribution and effect.

What determines the different effects of norepinephrine in the body?

The different effects of norepinephrine are determined by the type of receptors present on the effector organs. Alpha receptors cause constriction of smooth muscles, while beta receptors cause relaxation, leading to increased blood flow.

Why is it problematic that the body's stress response is triggered by non-life-threatening stressors?

The activation of the stress response by non-life-threatening stressors can be problematic because it can lead to chronic health issues over time, such as high blood pressure, digestive problems, and a suppressed immune system.

What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system in contrast to the sympathetic nervous system?

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the 'rest and digest' functions of the body, promoting relaxation and recovery, in contrast to the sympathetic system's 'fight or flight' response.

How does the sympathetic nervous system's response to stress potentially endanger life in the long run?

The frequent activation of the sympathetic nervous system due to non-life-threatening stressors can lead to long-term health problems, as the body's full-body stress response can be taxing and harmful if experienced chronically.

Outlines

00:00

🚨 Stress and the Sympathetic Nervous System 🚨

This paragraph discusses the body's stress response, particularly the role of the sympathetic nervous system. It explains how stress, although often perceived negatively, is a vital mechanism for survival in dangerous situations. The sympathetic nervous system prioritizes immediate needs by redirecting energy to the brain, heart, and muscles, suppressing non-essential functions. The paragraph also highlights the modern issue of stress responses being triggered too frequently by everyday concerns, which can be detrimental to health. It delves into the anatomy of the autonomic nervous system, explaining the synapse process involving neurotransmitters and hormones, and emphasizes the importance of understanding these physiological responses to manage stress effectively.

05:02

🔍 The Chemistry of Stress Response 🔍

This section delves deeper into the chemical aspects of the stress response, focusing on neurotransmitters and hormones. It explains how the same substances can have varying effects depending on their location in the body. The paragraph details the process of signal transmission from the brain to the adrenal glands, highlighting the role of acetylcholine and norepinephrine. It clarifies that norepinephrine functions as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, with its effects depending on the type of receptors present in the effector organs. The summary also touches on the dual nature of norepinephrine in stimulating and inhibiting body systems, and how this contributes to the body's emergency response, while cautioning about the long-term effects of chronic stress activation.

10:02

🎬 Behind the Scenes of Crash Course Production 🎬

The final paragraph shifts focus from the scientific content to the production aspects of the Crash Course video series. It acknowledges the support of Patreon contributors, particularly Thomas Frank, and lists the names of individuals who co-sponsored the episode. The paragraph provides credits to the writing, editing, consulting, directing, and other production roles involved in creating the episode. It also mentions the studio where Crash Course is filmed and introduces the graphics team responsible for the visual elements of the series.

Keywords

💡Smoke Alarm

A smoke alarm is a device that detects the presence of smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. In the video, it symbolizes the onset of a stressful situation, triggering the body's stress response. The loud noise of the alarm is mentioned to illustrate the immediate and intense reaction it causes, preparing the body for action.

💡Stress

Stress is a physical and emotional response to demanding or dangerous situations. The video explains that stress is not inherently negative; it is a survival mechanism. However, it also discusses the modern issue of stress being triggered by non-life-threatening issues, which can have detrimental health effects over time.

💡Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is a part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the 'fight or flight' response to stress. The video emphasizes its role in focusing the body's resources on immediate threats, such as a burning building, by prioritizing actions like increasing heart rate and blood flow to muscles.

💡Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that facilitate communication between neurons or between neurons and effector cells. The video highlights acetylcholine as a key neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system, which is crucial for signal transmission across synapses.

💡Acetylcholine (ACh)

Acetylcholine, or ACh, is a neurotransmitter that plays a central role in the sympathetic nervous system. The script mentions it as the 'coin of the realm' for nervous communication, indicating its importance in transmitting signals from the brain to various parts of the body during stress.

💡Norepinephrine

Norepinephrine is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, which can have different effects depending on its context within the body. The video explains its role in the sympathetic nervous system, where it can either constrict or dilate blood vessels, depending on the type of receptors present in the effector organs.

💡Hormones

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by glands that regulate various physiological processes. The video describes how hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine are released into the bloodstream by the adrenal glands in response to stress, affecting organs throughout the body.

💡Epinephrine

Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is a hormone released by the adrenal glands during stress. The script explains its role in the body's stress response, where it increases heart rate, blood flow, and respiration to prepare the body for immediate action.

💡Receptors

Receptors are proteins that receive signaling molecules like neurotransmitters and hormones. The video discusses how the same chemical can have different effects based on the type of receptors present on the effector cells, such as alpha receptors causing constriction and beta receptors causing relaxation of blood vessels.

💡Parasympathetic System

The parasympathetic system is the 'rest and digest' counterpart to the sympathetic nervous system. The video mentions it as the body's mechanism for relaxation and recovery, which is crucial for balancing the effects of stress and maintaining overall health.

💡Synapses

A synapse is a junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals. The video describes the process of signal transmission across synapses as a critical part of the body's stress response, involving two synapses for most signals in the autonomic nervous system.

Highlights

Smoke alarms trigger a stress response that can be life-saving in emergencies.

Stress is a natural response to danger, but it can be harmful when triggered by everyday worries.

The sympathetic nervous system is crucial for immediate survival but can be overactive in modern life.

The autonomic nervous system's two divisions, sympathetic and parasympathetic, have distinct roles in stress response.

Neurotransmitters and hormones are key chemical messengers in the stress response.

Acetylcholine is a primary neurotransmitter in the sympathetic nervous system.

Norepinephrine acts as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, influencing blood flow and other responses.

The same chemical can have different effects depending on the receptors present in the body.

Alpha and beta receptors determine the constriction or dilation of blood vessels in response to stress chemicals.

The stress response involves a complex interplay of neurotransmitters, hormones, and receptors.

Frequent activation of the sympathetic nervous system can lead to chronic health issues.

The parasympathetic system counterbalances the sympathetic system, promoting rest and recovery.

Understanding the sympathetic nervous system is crucial for managing stress and its effects on the body.

The body's full-body stress response can be detrimental when activated by non-life-threatening stressors.

The video provides a detailed explanation of the physiological processes behind the stress response.

Crash Course explores the anatomy and function of the autonomic nervous system in relation to stress.

Transcripts

So you’re sound asleep, when your smoke alarm goes off. Before you even know what’s

going on, you start to feel it. Those smoke alarms are loud -- for a good reason. Your

heart starts to race, your breathing picks up, you become sweaty all over your body.

You are stressed. And I’m not talking about the my-iPhone-just-died kind of stress. I’m

talking about the I’m-afraid-I-might-die kind of stress.

Even though it’s often seen as a dirty word, stress, like pain, isn’t all bad -- it’s

actually very useful if you’re, y’know, trying to get out of a burning building.

Your sympathetic nervous system is the part of your nervous system that responds to stress,

and it does its job exceedingly well by focusing on what your body needs to do right now.

Like, when you’re facing a life-or-death ordeal, you don’t need to be digesting that

cashew cluster in your intestines, or producing reproductive cells, or fighting off an infection.

That’s all stuff that you can deal with later, when you’re out of harm’s way.

So your sympathetic nervous system sweeps these suddenly trivial functions aside to

blast all of your energy to your brain and heart and muscles to deal with the threat at hand.

So, this is where I tell you that you’re lucky to have a sympathetic nervous system.

And that it keeps you alive. And that you would probably die in X Period of Time if you didn’t have one.

All of which is true. But here’s the thing: the problem is, nowadays our bodies’ stress

responses are triggered all the time, practically every day, even when we are not in mortal danger.

I mean, worrying about paying your wireless bill or being late for an important meeting

-- those things are terrible, but they will not kill you.

But, good luck explaining that to your nervous system.

Because your physiological responses to non-immediate stresses are largely the

same as when you’re fighting for survival.

So, if stress is, like, ruining your life, that’s why. And that’s part of the reason

that should get to know how it works. Because by learning about your sympathetic

nervous system, you come to understand one of the key players in the physiology of stress.

You may recall from our tour of the anatomy of your autonomic nervous system, that in

both your sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, almost every signal has to cross two synapses.

Each neuron travels from its root in the spinal cord to a ganglion, where it synapses -- and

yes, that is a verb as well -- with another nerve fiber. And that one, in turn, leads

to an effector organ, where it synapses again to create whatever response was signaled -- like

sending more blood to your skeletal muscles, or making your heart pump faster.

But you gotta wonder -- or at least I gotta wonder: how do these neurons and effectors

actually communicate with each other? And how do all of those signals result in the

high-octane sensations that we know as “stress”?

By and large, the stress response includes two kinds of chemicals, both of which I’m sure you've heard of.

The first, of course, are neurotransmitters. These are made and released from neurons themselves,

and like we talked about in our lesson about synapses, they are what neurons use to communicate

with each other -- or their effector organs -- across a synapse.

The other chemicals involved in stress are hormones, which are secreted by your glands.

There are at least 50 different hormones at work in your body right now, and they do everything

from regulating your sleep cycles to making your body retain water so you’re not dying

of dehydration all over the place.

I’m telling you all of this now, up front, because hormones and neurotransmitters are

100% necessary for understanding how your sympathetic division ultimately works.

BUT! When you trace a single sympathetic signal, from the initial stimulus to the final response,

those chemicals can be kind of hard to keep track of.

That’s because the very same substance can have different effects -- actually, sometimes,

totally opposite effects -- depending on where it’s received in your body.

And to make things even more fun, even though neurotransmitters are part of your nervous

system, and hormones are products of your endocrine system, a compound can be considered

either a neurotransmitter or a hormone -- even though it hasn’t changed one iota -- depending

on where it happens to be operating in your body.

So all of this can make understanding your stress responses pretty confusing! You might

even say … stressful!

All right, we’re going in.

The smoke alarm wakes you up. You smell smoke. It is time to move muscles. Fast.

Your brain sends action potentials down your spinal cord and preganglionic neuronal axons.

Those signals flow all the way to their ganglia.

When the signals reach the synapses inside the ganglia, the nerve fibers then release

a neurotransmitter -- called acetylcholine, known to its friends as ACh.

If you haven’t heard of acetylcholine yet, you’re gonna wanna remember that name.

In addition to working in sympathetic ganglia like this, it’s also what the rest of your

peripheral nervous system and lots of your central nervous system uses to communicate.

So when it comes to nervous communication, ACh is really the coin of the realm. The premium currency.

So, that acetylcholine crosses the synapse and, if there’s enough of it, it can stimulate

action potentials in several neurons on the other end -- in the postganglionic fibers.

That’s all it does, but it’s important. It’s basically a signal booster.

Those postganglionic neurons then carry the action potential to the effector organs -- in

this case, let’s say your leg muscles, which are going to need an influx of blood

if they’re going to hustle you out of that house.

And at the end of that second, postganglionic neuron, the fiber releases a different neurotransmitter.

This one’s called norepinephrine. And it is always norepinephrine that’s released

from postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic nervous system.

It’s what crosses that final synapse and creates a response in the effector, like opening

up blood vessels that lead to the leg muscles.

So, the preganglionic fiber releases ACh, and the postganglionic releases norepinephrine.

Boom. Congrats. Your life is on its way to being saved.

But, your body has more than one mechanism for responding to things, especially things

like a burning house.

There’s another alternative for getting the message out.

I mentioned those hormones, remember?

In addition to nerve fibers that lead to ganglia and then your effectors, there’s also a

set leaving the spinal cord that goes directly to your adrenal glands.

Like all preganglionic fibers, these release acetylcholine, too. But here, the signal doesn’t

end up in another neuron that triggers blood vessels to open or whatever. Instead, it triggers

your adrenal medulla to release a flood of epinephrine and norepinephrine -- hormones

that rush through your bloodstream toward your heart, lungs, and other organs.

Now, hold up! Did you notice what I just said?

Yeah, I said the adrenal glands release norepinephrine as a hormone.

Whereas in that first scenario I said that norepinephrine was a neurotransmitter that

sent the final signal to control blood flow to the leg muscle.

Now, how can I say both of those things?

Because they’re both true.

Norepinephrine is BOTH a neurotransmitter and a hormone, and which one it is depends

on how it’s being used. If it’s being released from a neuron and travelling across a synapse,

we refer to a messenger chemical -- no matter what it is -- as a neurotransmitter. If it’s

being secreted by a gland into the bloodstream for more widespread distribution, it’s a hormone.

Even if it’s the same chemical. And to an effector, hormonal norepinephrine is just

as good as neurotransmitter norepinephrine. But as scientists, we describe them differently,

because they’re functioning differently.

Now, the ways in which a neurotransmitter-slash- hormone like norepinephrine works, is a good example

of another confusing aspect of your sympathetic nervous system. Because it works by both stimulating

and inhibiting the same systems in your body at the same time!

So, in our house-burning scenario, the norepinephrine your system releases causes an increase of

blood flow in some parts of your body -- like your leg muscles -- while restricting blood

flow in other places where it’s not urgently needed -- like your guts.

How can the same chemical cause opposite responses? Well, it all depends on the particular kind

of receptors that an effector has for receiving that chemical.

In the case of norepinephrine, its effector is smooth muscle -- the muscle that controls

all of your involuntary functions of hollow organs, like the stomach, and bladder,

and also your blood vessels.

On the smooth muscle cells controlling some blood vessels, there are receptors called

alpha receptors -- when norepinephrine, or epinephrine, bind to those receptors, they

make those smooth muscle cells contract, thereby restricting blood flow.

But on smooth muscle cells that control other blood vessels, there are lots of beta receptors

for epinephrine and norepinephrine, and when they are activated, they make the muscles

relax, letting more blood flow through.

So it makes sense that the smooth muscle around your blood vessels, which feed your skeletal

muscles -- which you’ll need to get out of that smoky house -- are covered in beta

receptors. Because you want those blood vessels to relax, and provide plenty of oxygen to

the muscles in your arms and legs.

And since running away is more important than digesting your dinner, the blood vessels leading

to your stomach and intestines have lots of alpha receptors, which reduce blood flow to

those areas, because that burrito can wait until you’re out of the house.

So, there’s a lot going on in your sympathetic responses. And much of it can seem complicated,

or even contradictory.

But the thing is, all of these functions work together to create a full-body response, which

is exactly what you need in an emergency.

After all, it wouldn’t do you much good to speed up your heart without sending that

blood to your muscles, where it’s needed. It’s up to those neurotransmitters and hormones,

and the receptors on the corresponding effectors, to make sure that everyone is on the same page.

So, the system works well. Really well. Sometimes, too well.

Remember when I said at the beginning, how your body doesn’t know life-threatening

stress from life-annoying stress?

Since your body’s reaction tends to be a full-body response either way, it can become

pretty taxing over time.

I mean, we’re talking about throwing parts of your body into overdrive, while depriving

others of blood and oxygen.

That’s not something you want happening every morning.

So the irony here? The real kick in the head? It’s that non-life-threatening stressors can

actually end up endangering your life in the long run, because your body’s stress response is so effective.

The frequent activation of your sympathetic nervous system, and the triggering the other

part of your stress response -- the part that’s driven by hormones -- can have nasty consequences,

like high blood pressure, digestive problems, and even the suppression of your immune system.

So what your body needs to do is figure out how to relax. Rest and digest. Feed and breed.

That is where your sympathetic system’s more mellow half-brother, the parasympathetic system comes in.

And yeah, that’s what we’re gonna be talking about next time.

For now you learned that your sympathetic nervous system controls your body’s stress

response and how the signals in your sympathetic nervous system travel to an effector, using

the neurotransmitters acetylcholine in the ganglion and norepinephrine at the effector.

And you learned that other signals can go right to the adrenal glands, where norepinephrine

and epinephrine are secreted as hormones.

And you also learned that the same messenger chemical can evoke different responses depending

on the receptors, with alpha receptors causing smooth muscles to constrict, for example,

while beta receptors cause smooth muscle to relax.

A big shoutout and thank you to our Headmaster of Learning, Thomas Frank, whose generous

contribution on Patreon helps keep Crash Course alive and well for everyone. Thank you, Thomas.

If you want to help us keep making great videos like this one, check out patreon.com/crashcourse

This episode of Crash Course was co-sponsored by Harry Brisson, David Thompson, Jason Constam,

and Tuseroni.

Crash Course is filmed in the Doctor Cheryl C. Kinney Crash Course Studio. This episode

was written by Kathleen Yale, edited by Blake de Pastino, and our consultant, is Dr. Brandon

Jackson. Our director and script supervisor is Nicholas Jenkins, the editor is Nicole

Sweeney, our sound designer is Michael Aranda, and the graphics team is Thought Café.