The Life and Philosophy of Aristotle

Summary

Der Skript enthält eine faszinierende Einführung in das Leben und die philosophischen Ansichten des Aristoteles. Es beschreibt seine Geburt in Stagira, seine Ausbildung bei Platon, seine Zeit als Lehrer Alexanders des Großen und die Gründung des Lykeums. Es behandelt seine wichtigsten Beiträge zur Logik, Metaphysik, Wissenschaft, Ethik und Politik. Obwohl seine Theorien im Laufe der Zeit angepasst und korrigiert wurden, bleibt Aristoteles' Einfluss auf die europäische Philosophie und Wissenschaft unbestritten.

Takeaways

• 🎨 Raphaels Meisterwerk 'Die Schule von Athen' veranschaulicht die philosophische Landschaft des 16. Jahrhunderts mit prominenten Persönlichkeiten wie Platon und Aristoteles.
• 📚 Aristoteles wurde im Jahr 384 v. Chr. in Stagira, Makedonien, geboren und hatte eine fundierte Bildung, die sein umfassendes Denken förderte.
• 🧠 Aristoteles verbrachte über 20 Jahre bei Platon und trotz ihrer ideologischen Differenzen war sein Genie nicht für Platon übersehen.
• 👑 Im Jahr 344 heiratete Aristoteles eine der reichsten Frauen Athens und wurde später der Lehrer des künftigen Weltherrschers, Alexander der Große.
• 🏫 Aristoteles gründete die Lyceum, eine gut finanzierte Schule, die sich hauptsächlich auf biologische Studien konzentrierte und eine beeindruckende zoologische Sammlung besaß.
• 📖 Aristoteles schrieb eine große Anzahl von Werken, die in den Bereichen Wissenschaft, Logik, Ästhetik und Philosophie unterteilt werden können.
• 🔍 Aristoteles' logische Arbeiten, einschließlich der Definitionen und des Syllogismus, sind Grundsteine für das philosophische Denken und die Wissenschaft.
• 🌿 In den Lebenswissenschaften trug Aristoteles zur Organisation und Erforschung bei, mit Werken wie 'Physik', 'Himmelskunde' und 'Naturgeschichte'.
• 🏛️ Aristoteles' metaphysische Ansichten basieren auf den Prinzipien von Form und Materie und der 'ersten Beweger', die sowohl im Individuum als in der Natur wirkt.
• 🧘‍♂️ In der Ethik sah Aristoteles die Glückseligkeit als das höchste Ziel menschlichen Handelns und die Tugend als das Mittel dazu.
• 🗺️ Aristoteles' politische Theorien waren konservativ und betonten die Bedeutung von Tradition und Sitte, wobei er für eine verfassungsmäßige Regierung im Interesse der Bürger war.

Q & A

Welche Bedeutung hat das Gemälde 'Die Schule von Athen' im philosophischen Kontext?

Das Gemälde 'Die Schule von Athen' von Raphael ist ein meisterhaftes Werk, das wichtige Persönlichkeiten der antiken Philosophie darstellt, wie Plato und Aristoteles, und symbolisiert die Weisheit und den intellektuellen Austausch der damaligen Zeit.

Woher kommt Aristoteles und in welchem Jahr wurde er geboren?

Aristoteles stammt aus der makedonischen Stadt Stagira und wurde im Jahr 384 v. Chr. geboren.

Wie lange verbrachte Aristoteles bei Platon und wo?

Aristoteles verbrachte etwa 20 Jahre bei Platon in der Akademie in Athen.

Wem hat Aristoteles als Lehrer gedient?

Aristoteles war Lehrer von Alexander dem Großen, dem zukünftigen Herrscher der bekannten Welt.

Wie nannte man die von Aristoteles gegründete Schule und wo befand sie sich?

Die von Aristoteles gegründete Schule wurde 'Lykeion' genannt und befand sich inmitten eines Leibesbewegungsgeländes in Athen.

Was war das beeindruckendste Erreichen des Lykeions?

Eines der bedeutendsten Errungenschaften des Lykeions war die umfangreiche zoologische Sammlung, die damals als die prächtigste der Welt galt.

Wie viele Werke werden Aristoteles zugeschrieben und was für Arten von Arbeiten umfassen sie?

Aristoteles wird Hunderte, manche Quellen sogar bis zu tausend Werke zugeschrieben, die sich in wissenschaftliche, logische, ästhetische und philosophische Arbeiten unterteilen.

Wie definiert Aristoteles das Begriffspaar 'Form' und 'Materie' in seiner Metaphysik?

Laut Aristoteles ist 'Form' die innere Notwendigkeit und der Drang, die reine Materie in eine bestimmte Form und Ziel zu gestalten, während 'Materie' die Möglichkeit für zukünftige Formen ist.

Was ist nach Aristoteles der Zweck des Glücks für das menschliche Handeln?

Aristoteles sieht das Glück als das ultimative Ziel menschlichen Handelns, das für sich selbst erwählt wird und nicht aus Gründen wie Ehre, Vergnügen oder Intelligenz, sondern weil es als das höchste Gut angesehen wird.

Wie definiert Aristoteles die Tugend im Rahmen seiner Ethik?

Laut Aristoteles ist Tugend etwas, was durch das konsequente Handeln richtiger Gewohnheiten kultiviert wird und nicht durch ein paar große Taten erlangt werden kann.

Welche Art der Regierung ist laut Aristoteles am besten geeignet für die breitesten Schichten der Gesellschaft?

Aristoteles betrachtet eine verfassungsmäßige Regierung als die am besten geeignete für die breitesten Schichten der Gesellschaft, da sie nicht die beste ist, aber die beste ist, zu der der durchschnittliche Bürger bereitwillig zustimmen ist.

Welche Rolle spielt die Bildung in der politischen Philosophie von Aristoteles?

In Aristoteles' politischer Philosophie spielt die Bildung eine zentrale Rolle, da er glaubt, dass die Staatsbürger nach den Gesetzen und Formen der Regierung ausgebildet werden sollten, um eine stabile und dauerhafte Verfassung zu gewährleisten.

Outlines

00:00

🎨 Das Leben und Wirken des Aristoteles

Dieser Abschnitt des Video-Scripts beschreibt das Leben und die wichtigsten Leistungen des Aristoteles. Er wurde im Jahr 384 v. Chr. in Stagira, Makedonien, geboren und war ein Schüler von Platon. Aristoteles verbrachte etwa 20 Jahre bei Platon und untersuchte dann verschiedene wissenschaftliche Felder. Er heiratete eine wohlhabende Frau aus Athen und unterrichtete später Alexander den Großen. Aristoteles gründete die Lyceum, ein Institut, das hauptsächlich auf biologische Studien fokussierte. Trotz seiner vielen Errungenschaften und seiner umfangreichen Werke, die in den Bereichen Wissenschaft, Logik, Ästhetik und Philosophie fallen, endete sein Leben unglücklich. Er starb 322 v. Chr. in Chalkis.

05:04

📚 Aristoteles' logische und wissenschaftliche Beiträge

In diesem Abschnitt werden die logischen und wissenschaftlichen Beiträge Aristoteles' hervor gebracht. Er gilt als Begründer der Logik und hat wichtige Begriffe wie Definitionen und Syllogismen entwickelt. Aristoteles' Definitionen zielten darauf ab, Klarheit in Argumenten zu schaffen, während Syllogismen verwendet wurden, um Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen. Er hat auch bedeutende Beiträge zur Meteorologie, Biologie und Embryologie geleistet und eine systematische wissenschaftliche Methode entwickelt, die für zukünftige Forschungen von großer Bedeutung war.

10:05

🌐 Metaphysik und Aristoteles' philosophische Ansichten

Dieser Abschnitt konzentriert sich auf die metaphysische Philosophie Aristoteles. Er unterschied zwischen Form und Materie und legte damit den Grundstein für seine philosophischen Überlegungen. Aristoteles glaubte an einen 'ersten Beweger', eine unbewegliche Kraft, die den Bewegungen und Veränderungen im Universum zugrunde liegt. Er sah die Seele als einen wichtigen Aspekt des Lebens und unterschied zwischen passiver und aktiver Vernunft. In seiner Ethik sah er das Glück als das höchste Gut und vermittelte, wie man durch rationales Denken und gute Gewohnheiten zur Glückseligkeit gelangen kann.

15:10

🏛️ Aristoteles' politische Philosophie und sein Idealstaat

In diesem Teil des Scripts wird die politische Philosophie Aristoteles vorgestellt. Er war konservativ und befürwortete eine verständige Veränderung der Gesellschaftsstrukturen. Aristoteles sah Revolutionen als destruktiv an und betrachtete Traditionen und Bräuche als grundlegend für die Stabilität einer Gesellschaft. Er war gegen Kommunismus und Monarchie, da er glaubte, dass Aristokratie und Demokratie bessere Regierungssysteme darstellen. Seine Ideen über eine verfassungsmäßige Regierung, Bildung und Gesetze reflektieren seine Ansichten über eine stabile und gerechtere Gesellschaft.

20:11

📖 Der Einfluss und die bleibende Bedeutung von Aristoteles

Der Abschlussteil des Skripts diskutiert den bleibenden Einfluss von Aristoteles auf die europäische Philosophie und die Menschheitsgeschichte. Obwohl er viele Fehler gemacht hat und seine Theorien als kurzsichtig angesehen werden können, war er ein Produkt seiner Zeit mit begrenzten Mitteln und einer noch nicht vollständig entwickelten Wissensbasis. Sein Beitrag zur Wissenschaft, Logik, Ästhetik und Philosophie bleibt unbestritten und sein Name zählt zu den bedeutendsten in der Geschichte des philosophischen Denkens.

Keywords

💡Aristoteles

Aristoteles war ein antiker griechischer Philosoph, dessen Werke die europäische Denkweise für Jahrhunderte prägten. Im Video wird er als zentraler Denker und Akteur dargestellt, der die Grundlagen der Logik, Metaphysik, Ethik und Naturwissenschaften legte. Er war Schüler Platons und Lehrer Alexanders des Großen. Aristoteles’ breitgefächertes Wissen und seine Methoden zur Kategorisierung und systematischen Untersuchung der Natur machten ihn zu einer Schlüsselfigur in der Geschichte der Philosophie und Wissenschaft.

💡Die Akademie

Die Akademie bezieht sich auf Platons Akademie in Athen, die erste Institution für höhere Bildung in der westlichen Welt. Aristoteles studierte und lehrte dort für etwa 20 Jahre. Diese Institution spielte eine wesentliche Rolle in der Entwicklung von Aristoteles’ Denken und seiner philosophischen Grundlagen, was im Video hervorgehoben wird.

💡Lykeion

Das Lykeion war Aristoteles’ eigene Schule in Athen, die er nach seiner Zeit in der Akademie gründete. Es wird im Video erwähnt, da es ein wichtiges Zentrum für die wissenschaftliche Forschung war und zur Erweiterung und Verbreitung von Aristoteles’ Lehren beitrug. Im Gegensatz zur Akademie konzentrierte sich das Lykeion stärker auf empirische Beobachtungen und biologische Studien.

💡Logik

Logik, eine Disziplin, die nahezu von Aristoteles begründet wurde, spielt im Video eine zentrale Rolle. Sie bezieht sich auf die Struktur des Arguments und Denkens, insbesondere durch das System des Syllogismus, das Aristoteles entwickelte. Diese Methodik ermöglicht es, aus festgelegten Prämissen Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen und ist grundlegend für die westliche analytische Tradition.

💡Metaphysik

Die Metaphysik bei Aristoteles beschäftigt sich mit den grundlegenden Fragen des Seins und der Realität, einschließlich der Konzepte von Form und Materie sowie der Ursache und des Zwecks des Seins. Im Video wird diese Disziplin als Kern von Aristoteles’ philosophischen Beiträgen dargestellt, die seine Ansichten über das Universum und seine Natur prägen.

💡Ethik

Die Ethik bei Aristoteles, die im Video hervorgehoben wird, bezieht sich auf die Studie des richtigen Handelns und des guten Lebens. Aristoteles’ ethische Theorien, insbesondere seine Vorstellungen vom goldenen Mittelweg und der Glückseligkeit als ultimatives Ziel menschlichen Handelns, beeinflussten stark die nachfolgende philosophische Tradition.

💡Syllogismus

Der Syllogismus ist eine Form der logischen Argumentation, die Aristoteles entwickelte, um zu zeigen, wie aus zwei gegebenen Prämissen eine notwendige Schlussfolgerung gezogen werden kann. Diese Methode wird im Video als wesentliches Element von Aristoteles’ Beitrag zur Logik erklärt.

💡Politische Theorie

Aristoteles’ politische Theorie, diskutiert im Video, bietet Einblicke in seine Überlegungen zu verschiedenen Regierungsformen und der Organisation der Gesellschaft. Er bevorzugte eine konstitutionelle Regierungsform und betonte die Bedeutung von Bildung und rechtlicher Ordnung für das Funktionieren des Staates.

💡Biologie

Die Biologie war ein Hauptinteresse von Aristoteles, der umfangreiche Studien über Tiere und Pflanzen durchführte. Im Video wird seine Arbeit als bahnbrechend beschrieben, da er die Grundlagen für die wissenschaftliche Biologie legte, einschließlich der Klassifizierung von Lebewesen und der Untersuchung ihrer Lebensprozesse.

💡Eudaimonia

Eudaimonia, oft übersetzt als Glückseligkeit oder das gute Leben, ist ein zentrales Konzept in Aristoteles’ Ethik. Es bezeichnet das Endziel menschlichen Handelns, das durch vernunftgeleitetes Leben und die Ausübung der Tugenden erreicht wird. Diese Idee wird im Video als Kern seiner ethischen Lehren hervorgehoben.

Highlights

Aristotle's influence on logic, beginning the field with his work on definitions and syllogisms.

The Lyceum's focus on biological studies, housing a vast zoological collection.

Aristotle's method of classifying animals and his embryological studies, laying the groundwork for future biological sciences.

Aristotle's metaphysical concepts of form and matter, and the 'prime mover unmoved'.

Aristotle's view on the soul and its presence in all animate things, distinguishing between the active and passive aspects of the soul.

Aristotle's ethical teachings, where happiness is the ultimate goal and the golden mean is the path to achieving it.

The importance of friendship and material goods in achieving happiness, according to Aristotle.

Aristotle's political philosophy, advocating for a conservative approach to societal structures and governance.

Aristotle's critique of communism and his belief in the natural order of superiors ruling inferiors.

The potential of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy in Aristotle's political thought, and the cyclical nature of governments.

Aristotle's advocacy for a constitutional government as the best attainable form for the majority.

The role of education in Aristotle's ideal state, shaping citizens to fit the form of government.

Aristotle's legacy in European philosophy and his impact on intellectual history.

Aristotle's scientific achievements despite limited tools and the state of knowledge at the time.

The relationship between Aristotle and Alexander the Great, with Aristotle influencing the young ruler's education.

Aristotle's concept of happiness and the role of reason, judgement, and self-control in achieving it.

Aristotle's belief in the eternal nature of matter and the origin of form.

Transcripts

Every philosophic mind knows that grand illuminating masterpiece composed by Raphael in the 16th

century, “The School of Athens.”

Here is Pythagoras, Diogenes, Zeno, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Averroes, Carneades, and Epicurus;

all working diligently at their craft, but walking above them all, as to say that these

two shaped the age, was Plato “pointing upward to his perfect state” (Durant) and

the philosopher of our interest, Aristotle “holding out his hand with downward palm,

as to bring his master’s soaring idealism back to earth.”

(Durant)

He was born in the year 384 before the Common Era in the Macedonian city of Stagira and

as if guided by providence the environment in which he grew was rich with opportunity

to develop his encyclopedic mind.

We are not certain as to the age at which Plato welcomed the reckless youth, but it

seems most likely that by twenty he had already begun the moulding process under the roof

of The Academy.

If our assumption is correct, then we can estimate that he stayed with the master for

upwards of 20 years and though they had their differences the genius of Aristotle did not

go unnoticed by Plato.

By the year 344 Aristotle had married one of the wealthiest women in Athens and by 345

was on route to tutor one who was destined to be ruler of the known world.

It speaks volumes of Aristotle’s merit as a scholar if the king of Macedon, seeking

the best for his son Alexander, decided that Aristotle would fit this Mould.

There was at first a disconnect between our philosopher and the youth as there was between

Aristotle and Plato, though he would eventually find success, for a brief time at least, and

Alexander would come to see in Aristotle a figure resembling a second father.

If we are to believe the words ascribed to Alexander by Plutarch then “though he had

received life from the one, the other had taught him the art of living.”

This lasted all of two years before destiny called and Alexander left Aristotle to the

tasks which would bring them both immortality.

It would be in his 53rd year that he would form his School “The Lyceum”, named for

the Athletic field with which it shared its domain.

It was a well-funded school owing to Aristotle’s relationship with Alexander.

Its focus was more so on the biological rather than solely on philosophical digest.

One of the great achievements of The Lyceum was the vast Zoological collection which it

boasted, it being the most magnificent the world had known in its time and for centuries

thereafter.

While the collection which he maintained was vast and without comparison the tools which

he had to study them hardly surpassed those natural to his own body; “He was compelled

to fix the time without a watch, to compare degrees of heat without a thermometer, to

observe the heavens without a telescope, and the weather without a barometer.”

(Eduard Zeller) These limitations would be apparent by the copious errors, some more

obvious than others, which are scattered throughout his manifold works.

The number of works attributed to Aristotle is estimated in the hundreds and by some up

to one thousand, it is not without cause that he would gain the moniker “The Encyclopedia”.

While Alexander was off conquering the known world through violence, Aristotle set out

to do it through truth.

In letter XII of Voltaire’s Letters on the English there comes to us a quote meant for

Isaac Newton, but I think it applicable to our philosopher and his student “It is to

him who masters our minds by the force of truth, and not to those who enslave them by

violence, that we owe our reverence.”

The scope of his achievement is magnificent and can be separated into four categories,

the scientific, logical, Esthetic, and strictly philosophical works.

It is also reported that he too had composed literary dialogues, though not one has survived

to our own day.

What might also be mentioned is that much of what we attribute to Aristotle are instead

works likely composed and stitched together by students and followers, but we can “be

sure that Aristotle is the spiritual author of all these books that bear his name: that

the hand may be in some cases another’s hand, but that the head and the heart are

his.”

(Durant)

Like so many of the great minds throughout history Aristotle did not end his life as

fortunately as it had begun.

When Alexander had ordered the execution of Aristotle’s nephew, he protested.

Finding himself as successful as ever in convincing Alexander to change his mind, he was rebuffed

and warned that he too could be sentenced if his protest continued.

The Athenians who surrounded him, too, found the philosopher as intolerable as they had

found Socrates.

When Alexander died suddenly, 323 B.C.E, these Athenians seized the opportunity to rid themselves

of Aristotle in much the same way as they had with Socrates.

They accused him of blasphemy, more specifically for teaching that prayer and sacrifice were

of no use.

Though our story deviates here from that of Socrates’ when instead of allowing the people

of Athens to make the same mistake twice over, he chose exile and fled to Chalcis (Cal-sis).

It was not soon after arriving here that Aristotle, alone and no doubt disappointed by the turn

of events, became sickened and without the will to carry on died here 322 B.C.E.

We must start our review of his academic contributions with the field of which he near single handedly

started logic.

While most of the time dull, it is likely the most important discipline for one to adhere

to within the field of philosophy, as without it one may be led astray by any Charleton

or Snake-Oil Salesman.

We should begin with Aristotle’s work concerning Definitions since it is the definitions which

make up the core of any argument.

He would have us separate each definition into two parts, the first being the group

to which it belongs, take the word canine for example, its group may be that of mammal.

Second, we must determine how a canine differs from the other members of its class such as

a human, cat, or horse.

We could say that canines tend to be slender, long-legged animals which bark, howl, or yip.

With this we may gain a clear distinction between a canine and other member of its class

and in so doing come to a common definition which satisfies each party participating in

the argument.

Next, in perhaps the most well-known of his contributions to logic, comes the Syllogism.

The Syllogism is “a trio of propositions of which the third (the conclusion) follows

from the conceded truth of the first two (the ‘major’ and ‘minor’ premises).”

(Durant) E.g., Frank is a canine, Canines have four legs, therefore Frank has four legs.

As can be seen above, by cancelling out the common term “Canine” from both premises

and combining what terms remain we have our conclusion; however, the difficulty is clear,

this being that “the major premises takes for granted the point to be proved in the

conclusion.”

(Durant) For if Frank does not have four legs, it is not a universal truth that canines are

four-legged animals.

We can assume with some confidence that Aristotle would point out that this is not an issue

of any significance for as long as the object in question has a multitude of traits which

link it to that specific class then we can presume its belonging.

We should think of the Syllogism not as a tool for discovering a universal truth, but

rather for “the clarification of exposition and thought.”

(Durant)

There can be no doubt that here we have a man who, through his own power of mind, started

a science which would stimulate all those who came after, few of which could add profoundly

to the varied logical works of Aristotle.

“Categories,” “Topics,” “Prior” and “Posterior Analytics,” Propositions,”

and “Sophistical Refutation”.

Before an investigation into the Metaphysics of Aristotle I think it appropriate to review,

if only briefly, his thoughts and findings regarding the various life sciences he dedicated

much of his time accumulating.

We can be sure that before Aristotle, the various sciences of which he observed and

recorded were hardly present in any organized manner.

I would like to make known that I am not forgetting Thales who hypothesized the sun and stars

to be balls of fire, Empedocles who told of life as the survival of the fittest, and of

course Democritus who contemplated the atom; I am only stating that the beginning of “organized

science” starts here with these works: “Physics,” “On the Heavens,” “Growth and Decay,”

“Meteorology,” “Natural History,” “On the Soul,” “The Parts of Animals,”

“The Movements of Animals,” and “The Generation of Animals.”

First, he gives us a magnificent Treatise on Meteorology, he paints us a strikingly

modern picture of our hydrological cycle.

When looking toward the species which populate the planet, he believes them to be near identical

to their predecessor, when taken in the large a link could be formed to the beginning of

life on earth; “nature makes so gradual a transition from the inanimate to the animate

kingdom that the boundary lines which separate them are indistinct and doubtful.”

He falls short of evolution and does not believe, as Empedocles did, that these small variations

come about through the survival of the fittest.

He classifies man as “mammal” and thinks the monkey a fitting intermediary between

man and those predecessors who roamed the earth on all fours.

Embryology too, finds its origin in Aristotle “He who sees things grow from their beginning,

will have the finest view of them.”

(Aristotle) Though it is true that Aristotle was not the first to think these thoughts,

he was, without question, the first to catalogue his findings with careful observation and

experiment.

As for his errors, we can forgive him that; we must keep in mind that the tools which

were used were archaic and the previously established body of knowledge which we rely

so heavily on today, was for the most part undiscovered.

When we search the depths of Aristotle’s metaphysic, we find two principles which establish

the basis for his chain of reasoning.

These two things are form and matter.

Form we may picture as the “inner necessity and impulse which moulds mere material to

a specific figure and purpose; it is the realization of a potential capacity of matter; it is the

sum of the powers residing in anything to do, to be, or to become.”

(Durant) All matter has its antecedent form of which this form too has its own antecedent,

and so on until we arrive at matter without form.

Perhaps an example would help to clarify.

If we begin with an adult man, we may say that the child is its form, from which the

embryo is its form, then the ovum the form of this; all guided and designed from within

to become what they were destined to be.

When we arrive at matter without form we have arrived at the question which all children

will ask when discovering the eternal nature of God, which is, but where does this matter

come from?

Aristotle would answer that matter itself, as but the possibility of future forms, can

be eternal, though motion must have a beginning.

Here is where he inserts the “prime mover unmoved”, a being of infinite and incorporeal

nature.

This being is the driving force within and without each individual thing as well as the

whole of nature.

This god has no desires, no purpose behind its action, and certainly has no personal

preference for man in particular as he is but a part of the whole which god is the vital

principle.

For Aristotle the will is free in so far as we can choose our environment such as the

books we read or the friends which we employ, but “we cannot directly will to be different

from what we are” (Aristotle).

The use of praise and blame, he believes, presupposes moral responsibility and free

will in this way.

The soul, according to Aristotle, is not unique to human beings, but it is present in all

animate things.

Plants for instance, their soul can be thought of reproductive power while in man it is the

power of reason and thought.

We may define it as the vital principle of any organism, the sum of its power and processes.

In Man there is the active and passive aspect of the soul; the passive being his individual

power of reasoning, while the active comes to us in the form of universal thought and

is independent of man’s body and individual characteristics such as memory and personality.

The Passive reason dies, while the active lives on undisturbed by reality; such are

the metaphysics of Aristotle.

After some time collecting and observing the natural world around him Aristotle turned

inward to man and his perfection.

Within the ethics of Aristotle, Santayana tells us, “The conception of human nature

is perfectly sound; every ideal has a natural basis, and everything natural has an ideal

development.”

Happiness, to begin, was the end goal of human conduct, “We choose happiness for itself,

and never with a view to anything further; whereas we choose honor, pleasure, intellect

. . . because we believe that through them, we shall be made happy.”

(Aristotle) This is of course obvious, and its revelation would do nothing for man without

a clear path to its achievement; this is what his ethics endeavored to clarify and solve.

The clearest path was through that which separated man from the lower animals, clear and rational

thought.

Man’s reason is his key to happiness; with the tools of clear judgement and self-control

he may rise from the very slums to the heights which befit the rational individual.

The golden mean is the method by which right reason is acquired.

The golden mean is that quality of character which meets the particular circumstance of

each situation.

The math is simple, one who has in excess what is required to meet the situation and

one who has too little to meet the situation are both equally faulty, it is he who has

just the right amount in just the right time who rises to excellence.

It is no matter which can be settled without patience and diligent practice; excellence

is only won through the development of right habits.

In other words, virtue cannot be obtained through a few great deeds but must be something

cultivated through the consistency of one's right actions.

“The good man is a working of the soul in the way of excellence in a complete life;

. . . for as it is not the one swallow or one fine day that makes a spring, so it is

not one day or a short time that makes a man blessed and happy.”

(Aristotle)

Material and external goods, too, must be acquired if one is to be called happy.

We must first have what is necessary, happiness is difficult when one is poor and starving.

Something else which is important to the wise man’s search for happiness is friendship.

Friendship being something which requires duration and equality; we must not think of

friendship as something to be won easily or bought, and we should be suspicious of those

who boast of countless friends.

But we must not forget that happiness is something which comes from within, and no amount of

material goods would suffice to make an individual happy without the development of knowledge

and right reason.

“The operation of the intellect . . . aims at no end beyond itself and finds itself the

pleasure which stimulates it to further operation; and since the attributes of self-sufficiency,

unweariedness, and capacity for rest, . . . plainly belong to this occupation, in it must lie

perfect happiness.”

(Aristotle)

In short, the wise man of Aristotle is happy in solitude, finding no pleasure in speaking

without good reason.

In fact, he finds no significant pleasure in anything, nor does he experience undue

mental strain from his misfortunes.

He is not ostentatious in anything and has a level character which feels neither vehemence

nor reverence.

If death calls, he is of good cheer and understands that life, in some circumstances, is not worth

living.

Like many of us, Aristotle’s political ideals were heavily shaped by the circumstances of

his life and of course by the environment which he laid.

These were troubling times and with the rise and fall of Alexander the political climate

was as if it changed with each season.

We can say confidently that the strain of his political thought was thoroughly conservative,

much like his master he too was well acquainted with the disaster which was the Athenian political

experiment of Democracy.

He believed that change to the fundamental structures which uphold society, though well

intentioned, will almost certainly be to the detriment of those involved and to the generation

unfortunate enough to follow their blunder.

He placed the utmost value on societal custom and traditions; and to alter or disrupt them,

he thought, would have an effect equal to “weakening the inmost essence of all law

whatever.”

(Aristotle) For this reason, he believes revolution to be a destructive method of transformation

which, while achieving some success in niece areas, comes at the cost of unintended destruction;

as it is said, the path to hell is paved with good intentions lost along the way.

In short, we should not be so quick to discard customs which history has judged to be worthy

of perpetuation without strict contemplation and arduous trial.

He was opposed to communism stating “that which is common to the greatest number has

the least attention bestowed upon it.

Everyone thinks chiefly of his own, hardly ever of the public, interest.”

He is not so naïve to believe that all will befriend all and understands that the evils

of the state are not the result of accumulated wealth and property, but “arise from quite

another source – the wickedness of human nature.”

In his view inferiors should be ruled by their superiors, no amount of communism would suffice

to create equality among unequals.

Monarchy, if power was bestowed upon the most virtuous, such as in Rome under Marcus Aurelius,

has potential to become the best of governments.

But as history has shown this is not typically the case and power eventually falls into the

lap of the greatest flatterer, a snake oil salesman rich in rhetoric, but poor in action.

The fate of monarchy is underlined by that famous quote from Lord Acton; “Power tends

to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.

Great men are almost always bad men.”

Aristocracy has many benefits and ranks far superior a form of government than its predecessor

Monarchy.

A government ruled by the wisest and most honorable of citizens, free from the destructive

force of the many voting with uninformed zeal for the greatest despot which tells them what

they want to hear.

At least this is what an Aristocratic Utopian would say of Aristocracy, but Aristotle knew

full well that all Aristocracies were destined for that inevitable fate of degrading into

Plutocracies (rule by the wealthy) and where money beats out ability there can be no true

aristocracy since the Plutocratic ruling class will be overthrown by the common citizen in

favor of Democracy, “love of gain in the ruling classes tends constantly to diminish

their number, and so strengthen the masses, who in the end set upon their masters and

establish democracies.”

(Aristotle)

Like all Polities, Democracy too has its unique benefits and risks.

He thinks that it has the advantage of being less corruptible with the simple logic that

“The many are more incorruptible than the few”.

But its fatal flaw is that it “arises out of the notion that those who are equal in

one respect are equal in all respects.”

(Aristotle) and “He who seeks equality between unequals, seeks an absurdity.”

(Spinoza)

Now that all forms of popular polity have been given their due Aristotelian treatment

what qualities does he think make for the greatest likelihood of success in government?

Our state will be likened to that of a constitutional government, it is not the best, but it is

the best the common citizen can be convinced to accept willingly.

First, we must begin by “having in mind such a life as the majority will be able to

share, and a form of government to which states in general can attain.”

(Aristotle) He begins by opening the road to political office for all those who demonstrate

the aptitude, no citizen who has not demonstrated the skill required to hold office will be

permitted to attain it.

And though all are not welcome in the political theater, they will be present to help determine

the end which these qualified individuals are to strive for.

Education will be front and center of our government, “that which most contributes

to the permanence of constitutions is the adaptation of education to the form of government.

… The citizen should be moulded to the form of government under which he lives.”

(Aristotle)

The laws provided by the polity will be strictly inculcated so that every citizen pays them

do mind, a citizenry which does not respect the law of the land is a citizenry doomed

to tyranny as people will not long tolerate the intolerable chaos associated with lawlessness.

To ensure proper quality and quantity of the populace, mimicking Plato’s Republic, the

state will be the matchmaker so that the best may be with the best.

He believes women to be out of place within the political theater and has been by many

accused of misogyny, this may be the origin of those countless paintings of Aristotle

being ridden embarrassingly by Phyllis, the mistress of Alexander, to satisfy the philosopher’s

own lust.

This, we might suspect, was likely to say that the man who believes women to be beneath

him is now beneath them, but we may give to him that he considered equally the happiness

of all peoples in his ethics.

His legacy and influence have been almost without comparison in the history of European

philosophy, so much so that deviating from his thought during the Middle Ages would have

been met with animosity and ridicule.

His reign of “over a millennium of intellectual history came to an end only with the audacious

irreverence of Occam and Ramus, the experimental science of Roger Bacon, and the innovating

philosophy of Francis Bacon.”

(Durant)

The critic will point out that Aristotle is replete with errors and short-sighted hypotheses,

but we must remember that he was very much a product of his environment; meaning that

the tools at his disposal were next to none and the knowledge that we rely on today was

nigh absent.

We must recognize the greatness of his achievement and pay our respects to his rightful place

at the shrine of great minds.

As always thank you for talking philosophy with me, until next time.