How do Children Learn?
Summary
TLDRThis podcast explores the evolution of learning theories from ancient alchemists' quest for the philosopher's stone to modern psychology's insights. It discusses behaviorism, constructivism, and the dialogic turn in education, emphasizing the active role of learners in constructing knowledge. The journey through learning theories highlights the complexity and context-dependence of effective educational practices.
Takeaways
- 🧪 The script discusses the historical pursuit of the philosopher's stone by alchemists as a metaphor for educators' quest for the transformative element in learning.
- 🌟 It highlights that learning theories are like the mythical philosopher's stone, suggesting that no single theory can fully encapsulate the complexity of learning.
- 📚 The script outlines the evolution of learning theories from ancient Greek philosophers to the modern era, emphasizing the historical and social influences on these theories.
- 🧠 Behaviorism is presented as an early psychological approach to learning, focusing on observable behaviors and the process of conditioning through stimulus-response associations.
- 🤖 Albert Bandura expanded on behaviorism by introducing social learning theory, which includes learning through observation, imitation, and reinforcement from others' experiences.
- 🏗️ Constructivism is introduced as a contrasting perspective to behaviorism, emphasizing internal cognitive processes where learners actively construct knowledge based on their experiences.
- 🌱 Jean Piaget's work is highlighted, focusing on the development of cognitive schemas and the importance of disequilibrium in learning, which drives the refinement of mental models.
- 🌐 Lev Vygotsky's contribution is discussed, emphasizing the social and cultural aspects of learning, particularly the zone of proximal development and the role of language in internalizing culturally specific ways of thinking.
- 🤝 The dialogic turn in learning theory is mentioned, focusing on the importance of the quality of talk in classrooms and the value of open-ended, exploratory dialogue in learning.
- 👥 Jerome Bruner's ideas on discovery learning are noted, where learners are encouraged to actively engage with raw stimuli to discover connections between ideas themselves, with the teacher acting as a facilitator.
- 🌟 The script concludes by reminding us that learning theories, like the philosopher's stone, are not about finding a single definitive answer but rather generating insights and effective educational practices.
Q & A
What was the primary goal of the Alchemists mentioned in the script?
-The Alchemists aimed to find a hypothetical ingredient known as the philosopher's stone, which they believed could turn base metals like lead into valuable gold and silver.
What did the Alchemists' 700-year search ultimately contribute to the establishment of?
-The Alchemists' search contributed to the establishment of the principles and working practices of modern chemistry.
What is the 'philosopher's stone' in the context of education?
-In education, the 'philosopher's stone' refers to the transformative ingredient that educators seek to facilitate learning and conceptual change in students' minds.
What are the two key triggers for thought suggested by the historical context of learning theory?
-The two key triggers for thought are: 1) Learning is often a contested process shaped by outside demands and expectations, and 2) Learning is historically specific, with what counts as appropriate being shaped by broader social and economic conditions.
What is the fundamental principle of behaviorism in learning theory?
-The fundamental principle of behaviorism is that all learning is a process of repeated association between stimuli, behaviors, and outcomes, known as conditioning.
Who are two well-known figures associated with behaviorism, and what do they suggest about learning?
-Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner are two well-known figures associated with behaviorism. They suggest that learning is achieved through the manipulation of stimuli, behaviors, and outcomes, with an emphasis on repetition, positive reinforcement, and punishment.
What is the core principle of constructivism in learning theory?
-The core principle of constructivism is that learning is a fundamentally internal process, where an active individual makes sense of their environment and experience by constructing new understandings and integrating them into their existing schemas.
What is the concept of 'schema' in constructivist learning theory?
-Schema, in constructivist learning theory, refers to cognitive maps or frameworks that individuals use to make sense of their world. The refinement of these schemas is seen as the fundamental principle of learning.
What are the two key ideas associated with Jean Piaget's work on learning?
-Jean Piaget's two key ideas on learning are: 1) Learning occurs when the learner is in a state of disequilibrium, prompting them to revise and restructure their schemas to incorporate new information, and 2) Learning is governed by biologically determined stages of development, which affect the quality of thinking and the capacity to transform information.
How does Lev Vygotsky's work differ from Piaget's in terms of the basis for learning progression?
-While Piaget sees a biological basis for learning progression, Vygotsky focuses on culture and social experience. Vygotsky suggests that an individual's learning potential is greatly enhanced through collaboration and interaction with others, a concept he calls the 'zone of proximal development'.
What is the significance of language in Vygotsky's perspective on learning?
-In Vygotsky's perspective, language is central to learning as it is not just a tool for conveying content but also brings with it the cultural tools for thinking. The internalization of language is a process of internalizing culturally specific ways of thinking, which is essential for learning.
What is the concept of 'dialogic talk' in education, and how does it differ from traditional classroom discourse?
-Dialogic talk in education is an open-ended conversation where the process of argumentation is more important than the product. It differs from traditional classroom discourse by encouraging collaborative discussions without a focus on a single correct answer, promoting deeper understanding and critical thinking.
Outlines
🧙♂️ The Alchemists of Learning: Philosophical Foundations
This paragraph introduces the podcast's theme by drawing a parallel between historical alchemists and modern educators in their quest for knowledge. It discusses the alchemists' pursuit of the philosopher's stone, a mythical substance to transmute base metals into gold, as a metaphor for educators seeking transformative learning experiences. The paragraph sets the stage for a deeper exploration of learning theories, emphasizing the complexity and multifaceted nature of learning. It also touches on the historical evolution of learning concepts from Greek philosophers to the Middle Ages, highlighting the influence of social and economic conditions on educational practices.
🔬 The Behaviorist Approach: Conditioning and Reinforcement
This section delves into the behaviorist perspective on learning, which focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental stimuli that condition them. It mentions the work of Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, who believed that learning occurs through repeated associations between stimuli and responses, a process known as conditioning. The behaviorist approach advocates for the use of repetition, positive reinforcement, and occasionally punishment to shape behavior. The paragraph also discusses Albert Bandura's social learning theory, which includes learning through observation and imitation. The behaviorist model's influence on educational practice is acknowledged, but it also faced criticism for ignoring internal psychological processes.
🏗️ Constructivism: Building Understanding from Within
The third paragraph introduces constructivism, an alternative learning theory that emphasizes the learner's internal processes and active role in making sense of their environment. It discusses the concept of schemas, or cognitive maps, that help individuals understand and categorize the world. Constructivists, such as Jean Piaget, believe that learning involves the refinement of these schemas through a state of disequilibrium, where the learner's existing mental models are challenged by new experiences. The paragraph also highlights the importance of the learner's developmental stages and the role of the teacher in facilitating learning by building on what the learner already knows.
🌐 Vygotsky's Social Constructivism: Learning Through Interaction
This section explores Lev Vygotsky's social constructivist theory, which integrates cultural and social experiences into the learning process. Vygotsky introduced the concept of the zone of proximal development, the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance. He emphasized the importance of scaffolding and the role of language in learning, not just as a communication tool but as a means of internalizing cultural ways of thinking. The paragraph also discusses the impact of Vygotsky's ideas on pedagogy, promoting communal activities, mixed-ability work, and increased interaction in the classroom.
🗣️ The Dialogic Turn: Learning Through Collaborative Conversation
The final paragraph examines the dialogic turn in learning theory, which focuses on the quality and nature of talk in educational settings. It discusses the work of Robin Alexander and Neil Mercer, who advocate for dialogic teaching that encourages open-ended conversations and collaborative discussions. This approach contrasts with traditional teaching methods that prioritize finding the 'correct' answer. The dialogic turn promotes a deeper understanding through exploratory talk, where the process of argumentation is valued over the outcome. The paragraph concludes by reflecting on the journey through learning theories, emphasizing the importance of critically engaging with these theories to gain insight into effective educational practices.
Mindmap
Keywords
💡Alchemists
💡Philosopher's Stone
💡Learning Theories
💡Behaviorism
💡Constructivism
💡Schema
💡Zone of Proximal Development
💡Disequilibrium
💡Scaffolding
💡Dialogic Teaching
Highlights
The podcast explores the history and theories of learning, likening the quest for understanding learning to the search for the mythical philosopher's stone.
Early scientists known as Alchemists sought an ingredient to turn base metals into gold, symbolizing the transformative power of learning.
The principles and practices of modern chemistry emerged from the unsuccessful search for the philosopher's stone.
Education's 'philosopher's stone' is the transformative ingredient of learning, focusing on conceptual rather than material change.
Learning theories are compared to artifacts of the quest for understanding the key to effective learning.
The complexity and individuality of learning suggest that a single theory describing it may not exist.
Learning theories have evolved from Greek philosophy, emphasizing systematic thought and reflection.
The Middle Ages saw learning shaped by the church, focusing on rote recall and repetition of religious texts.
The Renaissance and Enlightenment periods placed new emphasis on discovery and active learning.
The Industrial Revolution led to a renewed interest in learning for functional outcomes and capacities.
Behaviorism in psychology focused on observable behaviors and the process of conditioning through repeated association.
Albert Bandura introduced a social context to learning, emphasizing observation and imitation of others.
Constructivism emerged as an alternative to behaviorism, focusing on internal processes and the active construction of understanding.
Jean Piaget's work on learning emphasizes the importance of disequilibrium and the refinement of cognitive schemas.
Piaget's theory of developmental stages suggests that learning is governed by biological and cognitive capacities.
David Ausubel's model of learning starts with what students already know, emphasizing the connection between new and old understandings.
Jerome Bruner's discovery learning model encourages students to actively engage with raw stimuli to discover connections between ideas.
L.S. Vygotsky's social constructivism highlights the importance of collaboration and the zone of proximal development in learning.
Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the role of language in learning, as a tool for conveying content and organizing thought.
Dialogic teaching, influenced by Vygotsky, focuses on open-ended conversations and the process of argumentation in learning.
The dialogic turn in education emphasizes the importance of the quality and nature of talk in classrooms for learning.
The podcast concludes by reflecting on the journey through learning theories, acknowledging the lack of a definitive theory and the importance of context.
Transcripts
this podcast was produced by Mark P of
Manchester Metropolitan University
please feel free to use it for
non-commercial purposes without seeking
further permissions under the sherik
Clause of the Creative Commons
license once upon a time there lived a
group of early scientists called the
Alchemists learned intellectuals based
in the Arabic Peninsula the Indian
subcontinent and across Western Europe
they were unified by a single Noble aim
the hunt for a mysterious hypothetical
ingredient which could turn base Metals
such as lead into valuable gold and
silver the 700-year search caught the
popular imagination where their goal
became known as the philosopher stone
Beyond Legends of discoveries obscured
or suppressed by secret societies no
such artifact was ever produced but
beyond the Legends something very real
was achieved in the establishment of the
principles and working practices of
modern chemistry and all of the
contributions it was eventually to
produce
we in education have our own philosopher
stone our own single unifying Quest we
too seek that magical transformative
ingredient though our substance isn't
metal or Alloys but minds and the
transformation that we seek is not a
material one but conceptual it's that
thing that we call
learning the VAR theories of learning
exist as artifacts of this surge they
each provide a set of ideas and
propositions about the key ingredients
and combinations which transform
learning in this podcast I set out to
introduce you to a sample of these
theories and provide a rudimentary
grounding in some key perspectives on
learning in exploring them though we
should remember that they like the
Alchemists seek something vaguely
mythical that single idea which
describes and unlocks learning in
reality probably doesn't exist rather
learning is something complex
individualistic and
multifaceted but this is not to say that
our Quest is entirely without
purpose each perspective has in its own
way exposed some reality around the
processes by which learning sometimes
occurs and thus brings with it useful
implications for the
educator the search for the true meaning
of learning is
ageold in Western culture for instance
it's notable in the work of the Greek
philosophers where it was caught up in
broader discourse on the nature of
knowledge and
understanding Plato for instance
established a principle that learning
occurred within the individual through
their systematic and reasoned thought
and
reflection this notion was taken up by
Socrates who injected the need to go
beyond singular int introspection and
into a dialogue whereby another person
interrogated and probed one's
reasoning elsewhere Aristotle laid the
foundations of empiricism with a notion
that understanding came not from
introspection but from systematic
observation of the outside world in
their own ways thinkers such as these
established conventions not just on the
nature of subjects but of knowledge
generation and hence the nature of
learning through the early in Middle
Ages Notions of what learning was were
constituted by the governing interests
invested in education in their intent to
build the infrastructure of empire for
instance the Romans established most
strongly the tradition of apprenticeship
of learning that was constituted through
the close observation of activity by a
more masterly other as the church gained
dominance through the Middle Ages
education became about the dissemination
and maintenance of key dogmas and this
shaped constructs of learning towards a
sense of rote recall and repetition of
core
texts this was challenged through the
Renaissance and Enlightenment where
inspired by a new spirit of scientific
inquiry learning received a new emphasis
on Discovery and an active process of
generating understanding rather than
just receiving
it in turn this open-endedness was
curtailed through the technical demands
of the Industrial Revolution which
brought with it A Renewed interest in
learning governed by functional outcomes
and
capacities there is then an age-old
debate over the nature of learning much
of which predates the modern era of
universal schooling the treatment
offered so far offers two key triggers
for Thought firstly it demonstrates that
learning is often a contested process
with perceptions of its very nature
shaped by outside demands and
expectations secondly it suggests that
learning is historically specific what
counts as appropriate is shaped by
broader social and economic conditions a
mindfulness of these two facets is
perhaps sensible in our continued
exploration of learning theory here it
reminds us that our particular
philosopher stone is not one thing
rather it means different things to
different people in different times and
contexts the time and context we occupy
now is one dominated by psychology and
in the remainder of this podcast we will
will focus specifically on its
contribution we should though be mindful
that there are other aspects of our
current context which shape what we see
as
learning we live amongst an era of Rapid
globalization amongst a particular
economic climate and against a
neoliberal market driven political
climate these as much as any so-called
pure theory of learning might shape what
is seen as legitimate and beneficial
activity in education though here we
will allow these processes to take a
background to the more direct
theoretical
Expressions the earliest attempts by
psychologists to explain learning did so
by applying very strict scientific
principles as such they set out to
establish controlled experiments often
involving animals placed in mazes and
other apparatus to measure the extent
and effects of
experience in applying this scientific
method these theories focused only on
observable evidence and th rejected any
form of attempt to speculate about the
inner workings of the mind their
understanding of learning therefore
focused on the behaviors which their
subjects exhibited as evidence of
learning and the conditions and
responses which made these behaviors
more likely to reoccur as such they
became known as the
behaviorists the work of the
behaviorists of whom Ivan Pavlov and bf
skin are perhaps most well known is
Unified by a single principle that all
learning is a process of repeated
association between stimuli behaviors
and outcomes a process called
conditioning the approach suggests that
by carefully and scientifically
manipulating these three components we
are effectively able to program
individuals into particular patterns of
behavior with increasing
predictability it is this process which
they argue we know as learning whether
this is a dog learning a new trick
through the careful application of
Rewards or a class learning a new French
verb through chanting and
feedback the principles established by
behaviorists suggest that repetition is
crucial to learning as is the careful
application of positive reinforcement
and to a lesser extent
punishment early versions of the
approach dealt with the individual in
isolation though Albert banur injected a
social context to the approach He
suggests that learning occurs not just
through direct experience but also
through the observation of others
through the imitation of Behavioral
models and by seeing others rewarded and
punished
the behavioral perspective offered
perhaps the first coherent model of
learning and its influence remains in
educational practice but the 1960s saw a
growing discontent with its
principles in part these objections were
political and stemmed from the socially
liberal trends of the time conditioning
and shaping Behavior Jarred as an
oppressive mechanism of social control
equally objections were
theoretical detract suggested that in
ignoring the internal workings of the
individual's psychology the behaviorists
were ignoring a fundamental aspect of
what learning
is a group of alternative theorists
therefore set out to develop an approach
which attended to these aspects it was
based on the principle that learning was
a fundamentally internal process
governed by an active individual making
sense of their environment and
experience this is an approach which
contrasts strongly with the model of a
passive and programmable self as spoused
by the
behaviorists this individual the New
Perspective maintained was always an
active learner engaged not in the
reception of knowledge but in
constructing new understandings by
integrating experience into their
existing
psychologies on the basis of this
principle the approach became known as
constructivism at the core of
constructivism is the notion of schema
cognitive maps by which we make sense of
our world it is the refinement of these
Maps which are often represented as
hierarchical trees which constructivist
see as the fundamental principle of
learning when we are born we begin to
learn to make distinctions initially
between self and not self and then
between objects and people between
family and stranger and so on these
divisions become increasingly complex as
our existing schemas take us further and
allow us to receive experience in more
sophisticated ways a numerical schema
for instance allow was to distinguish
Notions of order of odd and even primes
and non primes and
onwards the exact mechanisms by which
schemer are refined has become the
business of the constructivist school at
the center of which is Jean
Pi Pi's work is dealt with in depth
elsewhere but for now it's worth
paraphrasing two of his key
ideas the first aspect of PJ's work
focuses on the preconditions for
learning he argues that no refinement of
schema will ever happen unless the
learner finds themselves in a state of
disequilibrium by this he means a state
by which they cannot fully understand
the outside world using their existing
mental Maps once in this context they
are primed to revise and restructure
their schema in order to incorporate new
information and experiences and bring
about equilibrium and hence to learn
something anybody who's taken a toddler
to a farm will recognize this process
they will often point at animals and
incorrectly identify them look a doggy
they yell pointing at a
cow by pointing out the error of their
identification and offering information
on how to make the distinction the adult
is able to both bring about
disequilibrium and allowed the learner
to accommodate new information to
address
this the second aspect of Pi's work
holds that learning is governed by
biologically determined stages of
development the
the reason why six-year-old rocket
scientists are thin on the ground is not
just because of the quantity of their
knowledge but also the quality of their
thinking their cognitive capacity to
receive and transform
information much of PR's work is an
attempt to document these mental stages
and the capacities that they bring again
these are detailed more extensively
elsewhere p and the other
constructivists have been significantly
influential in priming Educators to
think of their Learners as active and
engaged and not just as passive vessels
for the reception of content they have
inspired others to produce pedagogies
which draw on these principles in order
to promote
learning David osel is one such thinker
his model begins with an assertion that
we should start not with what we want to
teach children but with what they
already know this emphasis is a radical
challenge to teachers who feel
particularly that they are subject
experts but it rests fundamentally on
schema Theory unless we start at this
point the learner will have no sense of
connection between new understandings
and old and they will simply forget
misunderstand or not understand at
all in practice osabel suggests that we
can manage this process in a number of
ways the most important is Baseline
assessment and simply getting to know
classes Beyond this we need to manage
the integration of new content in very
carefully organized ways so that we
fully emphasize the similarity and
difference between
ideas one way of doing this is by
signaling these connections formally at
the onset of teaching using what oabel
calls an advanced organizer or in
prevalent popular language the shared
learning
objective Jerome Bruner is another
constructivist whose contribution to
pedagogy has been significant like oabel
Bruner suggests that the learner needs
to be actively engaged with the process
if it's to be
successful where oel places emphasis on
the teacher in managing this however
Bruner implicates the learner
themselves in his model of Discovery
learning Bruner suggests that we should
present students not with organized
content but with the raw stimuli by
which they can discover the connection
between ideas themselves in this model
the teacher becomes a facilitator
carefully designing learning experiences
which challenge the learner to solve
problems generate order and in doing so
produce understanding for
themselves for much of its history
constructivism has been dominated by a
focus on the atomized individual as a
unit of
analysis this is perhaps a cultural bias
stemming from its origins in Western
capitalist and individualistic
Societies in this context it's
interesting that an alternative more
socially sensitive version of the
approach arose independently in the
Communist
East Levi gotsky worked at the same time
as Pi though his influence in the West
Was impeded by the Iron Curtain he has
risen to occupy a similar status of
dominance in many ways vigotsky offers a
similar perspective to the Western
constructivists with an active learner
at the center of the
model however where Pi sees a biological
basis to progression votsi focuses
instead on culture and social
experience vot's Theory suggests that an
individual is capable of learning to a
certain extent in isolation but through
collaboration with others they can
achieve much more vigotsky calls the
difference between individual and
potential learning the zone of proximal
development vigotsky proceeds to suggest
that two key qualities are necessary
features of any interaction to promote
learning the first is scaffolding by
which one individual offers cognitive
support to another in reaching a
particular objective through for
instance careful
questioning the second is subjectivity
or a difference in existing
schema most commonly this is interpreted
as differences in ability and as a
justification for mixed ability
teaching in reality vot's intended
meaning was broader referring to any
difference in perspective in combining
different views of the world vski
suggests that both parties are able to
generate new understandings to which
they would otherwise not have
access Central to vot's perspective is
an emphasis on language as a mechanism
in learning on the surface this is
perhaps obvious for talk is the medium
through which interaction often occurs
however vigotsky sees language as
something more sophisticated than a
technical tool more than just a way of
conveying
content rather he suggest that language
also brings with it the tools by which
our cultures think about the world
semiotic set of classifications
divisions and categories around which
schema are
organized the internalization of
language then and growing Mastery over
it is more than just a technical
exercise it is also a process of
internalizing culturally specific ways
of
thinking the influence of vigotsky on
pedagogy has been significant heralding
a focus on communal activity in the
classroom on mixed ability work and
increasing
interaction the later emphasis on
language has in recent years seen
something of an upsurge in interest in
perhaps one of the most important turns
in contemporary learning
theory these theorists of whom Robin
Alexander and Neil Mercer are
particularly well known have taken up
vot's emphasis on Mastery of language as
a facet of learning in a dialogic turn
in
education Central to this turn is an
assertion that to properly understand
learning we need to pay attention to the
qualities and nature of talk in
classrooms in this mode Robin Alexander
has undertaken a cross-cultural study of
classroom discourse identifying a set of
common forms these range from wrote
recitation through to the giving of
instruction and explanation and into
discussion Alexander suggests though
that the most powerful form of talk is
what he calls dialogic talk here the
teacher abandons a sense of a preferred
right answer and instead encourages an
open-ended conversation in which the
process of argumentation is more
important than the product of an
argument dialogic teaching is marked by
an attempt to probe and extend thinking
in a collaborative discussion with a
focus on those themes and ideas which
are initiated by the
Learner in Britain however Alexander
notes that such an approach is rare this
is not necessarily because of bad
practice but rather the constraints of
context we occupy an education system
which emphasizes answers and this runs
contrary to the aims of dialogic
teaching the result according to
Alexander is a game of hunt the answer a
pattern of initiation response and
feedback as the teacher attempts to
produce the single correct idea they
have in their heads amongst classes
through
questioning for Alexander such an
approach pushes out the opportunity for
a more productive and interrogative open
dialogue Alex 's work on teacher talk
has been replicated elsewhere by merer
focusing on the qualities of Talk
Amongst Learners here Mera finds a
tendency towards disputational and
cumulative forms of interaction the
first is based on disagreement and
argument and the latter a gradual
buildup of a single idea both He
suggests are counterproductive because
they fail to interrogate and unpick
meanings and ideas or attend to the
process of
argumentation explor talk by contrast
has the same open and integ interative
qualities of dialogic teaching and this
tends towards a deeper and more genuine
form of
understanding and this brings us to the
end of our cursory exploration of the
nature of learning theory a journey
which began with ancient history
proceeded through each of the key eras
of human society and into the modern
psycho dominant era here we have
explored the principles of three key
perspectives the behaviorists the
constructivists and the more recent
dialogic
turn historical tellings of this kind
tend towards the illusion of a March of
progress the sense of a journey towards
a definitive and proven theory of
learning in the face of this it's worth
a brief repost to remind ourselves that
we seek the Philosopher's Stone a
mythical if convenient
substance the theories explored here
occur in context and these shape which
are seen as more legitimate and
productive in in as much as their
inherent truthfulness or
usefulness this said like The Alchemist
of old the work of learning theory is
not futile it's generated Insight in
some of the ways that learning can be
interpreted and has made suggestions
about practice that might be effective
in educational
settings as such an engagement with them
by a critically engaged and autonomous
student is always productive
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