The Personal Computer Revolution: Crash Course Computer Science #25

Summary

本视频讲述了个人电脑的诞生和发展历程。在1970年代早期，由于单芯片CPU的出现和集成电路的进步，个人电脑变得低成本且功能强大。这导致了微型计算机的产生，它们相比当时的商用或大学用计算机要小得多，价格也便宜，使得个人拥有电脑成为可能。视频中提到了第一台商业上成功的个人电脑——Altair 8800，以及微软创始人比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦为其开发的BASIC解释器。随后，苹果公司的Apple I和Apple II，TRS-80 Model I，以及Commodore PET 2001等电脑相继问世，它们被称为1977年的“三圣器”，推动了个人电脑的普及。IBM也注意到了这一市场，推出了IBM PC，其开放架构和兼容性成为了行业标准。与此同时，苹果公司则采取了封闭架构策略，推出了具有图形用户界面的Macintosh电脑，为用户带来了不同于PC的体验。这段历史展示了个人电脑如何从昂贵的商用设备转变为普通消费者也能负担得起的工具，以及不同的商业模式如何塑造了今天的计算机行业。

Takeaways

• 💻 个人电脑（PC）在1970年代初期是昂贵且难以普及的，但到了1970年代早期，成本降低使得个人电脑成为可能。
• 📦 单芯片CPU的出现和集成电路技术的进步使得电脑组件小型化、成本降低，从而可以在单个电路板上集成整个电脑。
• 📚 低成本的存储介质，如磁带盒和软盘，以及低成本显示器（通常是改装的电视），是个人电脑普及的关键因素。
• 🌟 微型计算机（microcomputer）因其体积小和成本低廉而得名，它们标志着个人电脑时代的开始。
• 🔍 尽管有多款机型声称是“第一台”个人电脑，但Altair 8800是第一款商业上成功的个人电脑。
• 💡 年轻的比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦提出，为了让Altair 8800对业余爱好者更有吸引力，需要一个能够运行BASIC语言的解释器。
• 🚀 微软（Microsoft）的成立和Altair BASIC的成功，为个人电脑爱好者运动的兴起和家庭计算机俱乐部的形成奠定了基础。
• 🍎 苹果公司的第一款产品Apple 1，以及随后的Apple II，推动了个人电脑向消费者和商业领域的扩展。
• 📈 1977年发布的Apple II、TRS-80和Commodore PET 2001被称为“1977三杰”，它们都带有BASIC解释器，进一步推动了个人电脑的普及。
• 📊 VisiCalc，作为第一款电子表格程序，极大地促进了个人电脑在商业领域的应用。
• 🏢 IBM注意到个人电脑市场的增长，决定进入该市场，并在1980年推出了IBM个人电脑（IBM PC），这是一款开放架构的电脑，允许第三方厂商开发硬件和外设。
• 📚 IBM PC的成功部分归功于其开放架构，这促进了硬件和软件的生态系统发展，并最终形成了“IBM兼容”标准。
• 🍏 苹果公司采取了与IBM不同的封闭架构策略，通过控制从硬件到软件的整个堆栈，提供统一的用户体验。
• 🖥 Macintosh电脑的推出，以其图形用户界面（GUI）引领了用户界面的重大变革。

Q & A

个人计算机在20世纪70年代初期为什么变得可行？

个人计算机在20世纪70年代初期变得可行，主要是因为单芯片CPU的出现，使得计算机既强大又小巧且成本低廉。此外，集成电路的进步提供了低成本的固态存储，包括RAM和ROM。这些技术的发展使得整个计算机可以安装在一块电路板上，大幅降低了制造成本。同时，出现了便宜且可靠的计算机存储设备，如磁带盒和软盘。最后，低成本的显示器，通常是重新利用的电视机，也是关键因素之一。

为什么称20世纪70年代的计算机为微型计算机？

之所以称20世纪70年代的计算机为微型计算机，是因为与那个时代的“普通”计算机相比，这些计算机非常小。更重要的是，它们的成本足够低，使得首次可以为单个用户购买和使用，没有时间共享或多用户登录，只有单一的所有者和用户。

Altair 8800为什么能成为第一台商业上成功的个人计算机？

Altair 8800在1975年登上了《Popular Electronics》杂志封面，并以439美元的套件形式出售，这个价格在当时对于计算机来说非常便宜。尽管调整通货膨胀后相当于今天的大约2000美元，但考虑到它在1975年的计算机市场中的定位，这个价格已经非常低廉。由于其受欢迎程度，很快就有了许多巧妙的附加组件可供选择，如额外的内存、纸带阅读器，甚至是电传打字机接口。

比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦如何使Altair 8800对业余爱好者更具吸引力？

比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦联系了制造Altair 8800的MITS公司，建议如果计算机能够运行用BASIC编写的程序，它将对业余爱好者更具吸引力。BASIC是一种流行且简单的编程语言。为此，他们需要编写一个程序，将BASIC指令转换为本地机器代码，这就是所谓的解释器。这与编译器非常相似，但解释器是在程序运行时进行转换，而不是事先进行。

苹果公司的第一款产品是什么？

苹果公司的第一款产品是Apple 1，它是在1976年7月上市的，售价为666.66美元。Apple 1是以套件形式出售的，它吸引了不介意修理和焊接的业余爱好者，但消费者和企业对此并不感兴趣。

1977年发布的三台改变游戏规则的计算机是什么？

1977年发布的三台改变游戏规则的计算机是Apple II、TRS-80 Model I和Commodore PET 2001。Apple II是苹果公司最早作为完整系统出售的产品，提供基本的颜色图形和声音输出。TRS-80 Model I由Tandy Corporation制造，由Radioshack销售，尽管它比Apple II落后，但成本只有一半，销售非常火爆。Commodore PET 2001具有独特的一体化设计，将计算机、显示器、键盘和磁带驱动器结合在一个设备中，旨在吸引消费者。

IBM个人电脑（IBM PC）为何能迅速成功？

IBM个人电脑迅速成功的原因有几个：首先，IBM品牌长期以来在商业领域积累了信任；其次，IBM PC采用了开放架构，有良好的文档和扩展槽，允许第三方为该平台创建新的硬件和外围设备；最后，IBM PC的开放架构促使了创新和竞争，形成了庞大的产品生态系统。

“IBM兼容”架构对个人电脑行业有什么影响？

“IBM兼容”架构允许任何遵循标准的公司创建自己的IBM兼容计算机。这导致了Compaq和Dell等公司销售自己的PC克隆机，并且微软乐意将MS-DOS授权给它们，迅速使MS-DOS成为最受欢迎的PC操作系统。这种开放的标准化方法促进了软件和硬件的大规模开发，使得用户有更多的选择，并且推动了个人电脑行业的快速发展。

苹果公司如何应对低价PC的冲击？

为了在低价PC的冲击下生存，苹果公司提高了自己的竞争力，提供了PC和DOS无法提供的用户体验。苹果的答案是1984年发布的Macintosh，这是一款开创性的、价格合理的一体式计算机，它不使用命令行文本界面，而是采用了图形用户界面。

为什么说“Mac”与“PC”的划分是一个错误的称呼？

“Mac”与“PC”的划分是一个错误的称呼，因为它们都是个人计算机。这个称呼源于苹果公司和使用微软操作系统的PC制造商之间的商业策略和设计理念的竞争。苹果公司采用了封闭架构，提供从硬件到软件的全栈控制，而PC则采用了开放架构，允许广泛的硬件和软件兼容性。

VisiCalc作为电子表格程序的先驱，它对个人计算机行业有何影响？

VisiCalc是1979年的第一个电子表格程序，它比纸质表格有无限的优势，是那个时代的“杀手级应用”。VisiCalc的成功预示着像微软Excel和谷歌Sheets这样的程序的出现，它极大地提高了个人计算机在商业和家庭中的实用性和吸引力，因为它使得数据管理和分析变得更加容易和高效。

为什么IBM在1980年需要重新思考其计算机策略和设计？

IBM在1980年需要重新思考其计算机策略和设计，因为它的市场份额从1970年的60%下降到1980年的大约30%。这主要是因为IBM忽略了微型计算机市场，而这个市场每年以大约40%的速度增长。随着微型计算机演变成个人计算机，IBM意识到它需要进入这一市场，而这需要从零开始，采用新的策略和设计。

IBM的“肮脏一打”团队在设计IBM PC时采取了哪些不同寻常的步骤？

IBM的“肮脏一打”团队在设计IBM PC时，采取了不使用IBM专有CPU而是选择Intel芯片的步骤，以及不使用IBM首选的操作系统CP/M，而是获得了微软的磁盘操作系统DOS的许可。他们还被允许从外部公司购买硬件和软件，这与IBM内部开发的传统做法截然不同。这种打破传统的开放方法有助于降低成本，并将合作伙伴公司纳入生态系统。

Outlines

00:00

💻 个人电脑的诞生

在20世纪70年代初，由于单芯片CPU的出现和集成电路技术的进步，个人电脑成为可能。这些技术的发展使得计算机的成本大幅下降，从而使得个人拥有和使用电脑变得可行。微机（microcomputer）因此诞生，它们不仅体积小，而且价格便宜，使得个人可以单独使用而无需共享。Altair 8800作为第一款商业上成功的个人电脑，其以套件形式出售，价格相对便宜，激发了计算机爱好者的热情，并催生了众多附加设备。此外，比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦为Altair 8800开发了BASIC语言的解释器，这使得编程变得更加容易，也为微软公司的成立奠定了基础。

05:03

🚀 个人电脑市场的兴起

1977年，被称为“1977年三杰”的三款电脑——Apple II、TRS-80 Model I和Commodore PET 2001——的发布，标志着个人电脑市场的兴起。这些电脑都附带了BASIC解释器，使得非计算机专业人员也能编写程序。特别是Apple II，以其专业设计和制造，以及提供的颜色图形和声音输出，成为了低成本机器中的佼佼者。这些电脑的营销策略是面向家庭，而不仅仅是企业和爱好者，这使得电脑开始大量进入家庭、小型企业和学校。IBM注意到了个人电脑市场的增长，并在1980年推出了IBM PC，这款电脑采用了开放架构，允许第三方厂商为其开发硬件和外设，从而催生了一个庞大的产品生态系统。IBM PC的开放架构和“IBM兼容”标准促进了创新和竞争，使得IBM PC迅速成为市场上的领导者。与此同时，苹果公司采取了封闭架构的策略，通过控制从硬件到软件的整个堆栈，提供统一的用户体验。

Keywords

💡个人电脑

个人电脑是指为单个用户设计的计算机。在1970年代早期，由于成本问题，个人电脑对大多数人来说还是遥不可及的。然而，随着单芯片CPU的出现、集成电路的进步、廉价可靠的计算机存储以及低成本显示器的发展，个人电脑变得足够便宜，使得一个人可以实际拥有并使用它。个人电脑的出现标志着计算机从大型机向普通消费者市场的转变，这是视频讨论的核心主题之一。

💡单芯片CPU

单芯片CPU是指将中央处理器的所有功能集成在一个芯片上的技术。这种技术的出现极大地降低了计算机的成本和体积，使得在1970年代制造出既经济又功能强大的个人电脑成为可能。在视频中，单芯片CPU被视为推动个人电脑发展的关键技术之一。

💡集成电路

集成电路是一种将大量微电子设备集成在一个小型芯片上的技术，它包括了RAM和ROM等存储技术。集成电路的发展降低了计算机内存的成本，使得个人电脑可以配备更便宜的固态存储，从而进一步降低了个人电脑的价格，这是视频中讨论的个人电脑得以普及的重要因素。

💡Altair 8800

Altair 8800是第一台商业上成功的个人电脑，它在1975年登上了《Popular Electronics》杂志的封面，并以439美元的套件形式出售，需要用户自行组装。Altair 8800的推出和销售标志着个人电脑时代的开始，它激发了计算机爱好者的热情，并催生了众多附加设备和软件的发展，如视频中提到的纸带阅读器和电传打字机接口。

💡BASIC编程语言

BASIC是一种简单易学的编程语言，它使得编写程序变得更加容易，特别是对于业余爱好者来说。在视频中，比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦为Altair 8800开发了一个BASIC解释器，这个解释器能够将BASIC指令转换为机器代码，从而使得个人电脑对业余爱好者更具吸引力。BASIC解释器的开发是微软公司的起点，也是个人电脑软件发展的重要里程碑。

💡Apple I

Apple I是苹果电脑公司的第一款产品，由史蒂夫·沃兹尼亚克设计，并于1976年以套件形式出售。它的售价为666.66美元，需要用户自己添加键盘、电源和外壳。Apple I的推出是个人电脑历史上的一个重要事件，尽管它主要吸引了业余爱好者，但它为后来的Apple II和整个苹果公司的成功奠定了基础。

💡Apple II

Apple II是苹果公司的早期产品，它是第一个作为完整系统出售的苹果电脑，具有专业设计和制造，还提供了基本的颜色图形和声音输出功能。Apple II系列电脑销售量达到数百万，迅速将苹果公司推向个人电脑行业的前沿。Apple II的成功展示了个人电脑在商业和家庭中的潜力，是视频中讨论的个人电脑发展的关键产品之一。

💡TRS-80 Model I

TRS-80 Model I是由Tandy Corporation制造并由Radioshack销售的个人电脑，它是1977年推出的三台具有里程碑意义的电脑之一。尽管它的技术不如Apple II先进，但由于成本低廉，销售情况非常好。TRS-80 Model I的成功证明了个人电脑在大众市场的吸引力，是视频中提到的1977年三台改变游戏规则的电脑之一。

💡Commodore PET 2001

Commodore PET 2001是一款将计算机、显示器、键盘和磁带驱动器集成为一体的独特设计电脑，旨在吸引消费者。它的推出开始模糊了计算机和家用电器之间的界限。Commodore PET 2001是1977年三台重要电脑之一，它的推出进一步推动了个人电脑作为家用电器的普及。

💡IBM PC

IBM PC，即IBM个人电脑，是在1981年发布的，它采用了开放架构设计，并迅速取得了巨大成功，尤其是在商业领域。IBM PC的成功不仅在于它采用了开放架构，允许第三方厂商为其开发硬件和外围设备，而且还在于它使用了微软的MS-DOS操作系统，这使得它能够迅速成为行业标准。IBM PC的推出和成功是视频中讨论的个人电脑发展史中的一个转折点。

💡Macintosh

Macintosh是苹果公司在1984年发布的一台具有开创性的个人电脑，它以图形用户界面而非命令行文本界面启动，这在当时是一个重大突破。Macintosh的推出是为了应对低价PC的竞争，它提供了一个PC和DOS无法比拟的用户体验。Macintosh的成功代表了苹果公司在个人电脑市场上的创新和差异化战略，是视频中讨论的个人电脑发展史上的另一个重要里程碑。

Highlights

20世纪70年代初，单芯片CPU的出现使得个人计算机成为可能，这些CPU既强大又小巧且价格低廉。

集成电路的进步提供了低成本的固态存储，包括计算机的RAM和ROM。

整个计算机可以安装在一个电路板上，显著降低了制造成本。

廉价且可靠的计算机存储介质，如磁带盒和软盘，开始普及。

低成本显示器的出现，通常是重新利用的电视机，为个人计算机的诞生提供了最后一块拼图。

1970年代，这些因素结合在一起，催生了被称为微型计算机的设备，它们与当时的“常规”计算机相比非常小巧。

个人计算机首次足够便宜，使得一个人购买并独自使用成为可能。

Altair 8800是第一台商业上成功的个人计算机，1975年以439美元的套件形式出售。

年轻的比尔·盖茨和保罗·艾伦向Altair 8800的制造商MITS提出，如果计算机能够运行BASIC语言编写的程序，将更吸引业余爱好者。

盖茨和艾伦为Altair 8800编写了一个BASIC解释器，这是微软公司的第一款产品。

Homebrew计算机俱乐部的成立促进了计算机爱好者之间的知识、软件和对计算的热情分享。

史蒂夫·沃兹尼亚克受到Altair 8800的启发，设计了自己的计算机原型，并在1976年5月向俱乐部展示了它。

苹果1号是苹果电脑公司的第一款产品，1976年7月以666.66美元的价格出售。

1977年发布的苹果II、TRS-80 Model I和Commodore PET 2001被称为“1977年三巨头”，它们都带有BASIC解释器。

这三款计算机的出现标志着个人计算机市场的兴起，它们被首次针对家庭市场进行营销。

IBM注意到个人计算机市场的增长，决定开发自己的个人计算机。

IBM PC采用开放架构，允许第三方为其平台创建新硬件和外围设备。

IBM PC的开放架构促成了一个庞大的产品生态系统，催生了所谓的“IBM兼容”标准。

苹果公司选择了与IBM不同的封闭架构方法，控制从硬件到软件的整个堆栈，以提高用户体验和可靠性。

苹果公司在1984年发布了Macintosh，这是一款具有图形用户界面的创新且价格合理的一体化计算机。

Transcripts

Hi, I’m Carrie Anne, and welcome to CrashCourse Computer Science!

As we discussed last week, the idea of having a computer all to yourself – a personal

computer – was elusive for the first three decades of electronic computing.

It was just way too expensive for a computer to be owned and used by one single person.

But, by the early 1970s, all the required components had fallen into place to build

a low cost, but still usefully powerful computer.

Not a toy, but a tool.

Most influential in this transition was the advent of single-chip CPUs, which were surprisingly

powerful, yet small and inexpensive.

Advances in integrated circuits also offered low-cost solid-state memory, both for computer

RAM and ROM.

Suddenly it was possible to have an entire computer on one circuit board, dramatically

reducing manufacturing costs.

Additionally, there was cheap and reliable computer storage, like magnetic tape cassettes

and floppy disks.

And finally, the last ingredient was low cost displays, often just repurposed televisions.

If you blended these four ingredients together in the 1970s, you got, what was called a microcomputer,

because these things were so tiny compared to “normal” computers of that era, the

types you’d see in business or universities.

But more important than their size was their cost.

These were, for the first time, sufficiently cheap.

It was practical to buy one and only have one person ever use it.

No time sharing, no multi-user logins, just a single owner and user.

The personal computer era had arrived.

INTRO

Computer cost and performance eventually reached the point where personal computing became

viable.

But, it’s hard to define exactly when that happened.

There’s no one point in time.

And as such, there are many contenders for the title of “first” personal computer,

like the Kenback-1 and MCM/70.

Less disputed, however, is the first commercially successful personal computer: The Altair 8800.

This machine debuted on the cover of Popular Electronics in 1975, and was sold as a $439

kit that you built yourself.

Inflation adjusted, that’s about $2,000 today, which isn’t chump change, but extremely

cheap for a computer in 1975.

Tens of thousands of kits were sold to computer hobbyists, and because of its popularity,

there were soon all sorts of nifty add-ons available... things like extra memory, a paper

tape reader and even a teletype interface.

This allowed you, for example, to load a longer, more complicated program from punch tape,

and then interact with it using a teletype terminal.

However, these programs still had to be written in machine code, which was really low level

and nasty, even for hardcore computer enthusiasts.

This problem didn’t escape a young Bill Gates and Paul Allen, who were 19 and 22 respectively.

They contacted MITS, the company making the Altair 8800, suggesting the computer would

be more attractive to hobbyists if it could run programs written in BASIC, a popular and

simple programming language.

To do this, they needed to write a program that converted BASIC instructions into native

machine code, what’s called an interpreter.

This is very similar to a compiler, but happens as the programs runs instead of beforehand.

Let’s go to the thought bubble!

MITS was interested, and agreed to meet Bill and Paul for a demonstration.

Problem is, they hadn’t written the interpreter yet.

So, they hacked it together in just a few weeks without even an Altair 8800 to develop

on, finishing the final piece of code on the plane.

The first time they knew their code worked was at MITS headquarters in Albuquerque, New

Mexico, for the demo.

Fortunately, it went well and MITS agreed to distribute their software.

Altair BASIC became the newly formed Microsoft’s first product.

Although computer hobbyists existed prior to 1975, the Altair 8800 really jump-started

the movement.

Enthusiast groups formed, sharing knowledge and software and passion about computing.

Most legendary among these is the Homebrew Computer Club, which met for the first time

in March 1975 to see a review unit of the Altair 8800, one of the first to ship to California.

At that first meeting was 24-year-old Steve Wozniak, who was so inspired by the Altair

8800 that he set out to design his own computer.

In May 1976, he demonstrated his prototype to the Club and shared the schematics with

interested members.

Unusual for the time, it was designed to connect to a TV and offered a text interface ‒ a

first for a low-cost computer.

Interest was high, and shortly after fellow club member and college friend Steve Jobs

suggested that instead of just sharing the designs for free, that they should just sell

an assembled motherboard.

However, you still had to add your own keyboard, power supply, and enclosure.

It went on sale in July 1976 with a price tag of $666.66.

It was called the Apple 1, and it was Apple Computer’s first product.

Thanks thought bubble!

Like the Altair 8800, the Apple 1 was sold as a kit.

It appealed to hobbyists, who didn’t mind tinkering and soldering, but consumers and

businesses weren’t interested.

This changed in 1977, with the release of three game-changing computers, that could

be used right out of the box.

First was the Apple II, Apple’s earliest product that sold as a complete system that

was professionally designed and manufactured.

It also offered rudimentary color graphics and sound output, amazing features for a low

cost machine.

The Apple II series of computers sold by the millions and quickly propelled Apple to the

forefront of the personal computing industry.

The second computer was the TRS-80 Model I, made by the Tandy Corporation and sold by

Radioshack – hence the “TRS”.

Although less advanced than the Apple II, it was half the cost and sold like hot cakes.

Finally, there was the Commodore PET 2001, with a unique all-in-one design that combined

computer, monitor, keyboard and tape drive into one device, aimed to appeal to consumers.

It started to blur the line between computer and appliance.

These three computers became known as the 1977 Trinity.

They all came bundled with BASIC interpreters, allowing non-computer-wizards to create programs.

The consumer software industry also took off, offering games and productivity tools for

personal computers, like calculators and word processors.

The killer app of the era was 1979’s VisiCalc, the first spreadsheet program – which was

infinitely better than paper – and the forbearer of programs like Microsoft Excel and Google

Sheets.

But perhaps the biggest legacy of these computers was their marketing – they were the first

to be targeted at households, and not just businesses and hobbyists.

And for the first time in a substantial way, computers started to appear in homes, and

also small businesses and schools.

This caught the attention of the biggest computer company on the planet, IBM, who had seen its

share of the overall computer market shrink from 60% in 1970 to around 30% by 1980.

This was mainly because IBM had ignored the microcomputer market, which was growing at

about 40% annually.

As microcomputers evolved into personal computers, IBM knew it needed to get in on the action.

But to do this, it would have to radically rethink its computer strategy and design.

In 1980, IBM’s least-expensive computer, the 5120, cost roughly ten thousand dollars,

which was never going to compete with the likes of the Apple II.

This meant starting from scratch.

A crack team of twelve engineers, later nicknamed the dirty dozen, were sent off to offices

in Boca Raton, Florida, to be left alone and put their talents to work.

Shielded from IBM internal politics, they were able to design a machine as they desired.

Instead of using IBM proprietary CPUs, they chose Intel chips.

Instead of using IBM’s prefered operating system, CP/M, they licenced Microsoft's Disk

Operating System: DOS and so on, from the screen to the printer.

For the first time, IBM divisions had to compete with outside firms to build hardware and software

for the new computer.

This radical break from the company tradition of in-house development kept costs low and

brought partner firms into the fold.

After just a year of development, the IBM Personal Computer, or IBM PC was released.

It was an immediate success, especially with businesses that had long trusted the IBM brand.

But, most influential to its ultimate success was that the computer featured an open architecture,

with good documentation and expansion slots, allowing third parties to create new hardware

and peripherals for the platform.

That included things like graphics cards, sounds cards, external hard drives, joysticks,

and countless other add-ons.

This spurred innovation, and also competition, resulting in a huge ecosystem of products.

This open architecture became known as “IBM Compatible”.

If you bought an “IBM Compatible” computer, it meant you could use that huge ecosystem

of software and hardware.

Being an open architecture also meant that competitor companies could follow the standard

and create their own IBM Compatible computers.

Soon, Compaq and Dell were selling their own PC clones...

And Microsoft was happy to license MS-DOS to them, quickly making it the most popular

PC operating system.

IBM alone sold two million PCs in the first three years, overtaking Apple.

With a large user base, software and hardware developers concentrated their efforts on IBM

Compatible platforms – there were just more users to sell to.

Then, people wishing to buy a computer bought the one with the most software and hardware

available, and this effect snowballed.

Companies producing non-IBM-compatible computers, often with superior specs, failed.

Only Apple kept significant market share without IBM compatibility.

Apple ultimately chose to take the opposite approach – a “closed architecture” – proprietary

designs that typically prevent people from adding new hardware to their computers.

This meant that Apple made its own computers, with its own operating system, and often its

own peripherals, like displays, keyboards, and printers.

By controlling the full stack, from hardware to software, Apple was able to control the

user experience and improve reliability.

These competing business strategies were the genesis of the “Mac” versus “PC” division

that still exists today... which is a misnomer, because they’re both personal computers!

But whatever.

To survive the onslaught of low-cost PCs, Apple needed to up its game, and offer a user

experience that PCs and DOS couldn’t.

Their answer was the Macintosh, released in 1984.

This ground breaking, reasonably-low-cost, all-in-one computer booted not a command-line

text-interface, but rather a graphical user interface, our topic for next week.

See you then.